Collective Effervescence and Communitas: Processual Models of Ritual and Society in Emile Durkheim and Victor Turner

Dialectical Anthropology

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 89-124

  Olaveson, T I M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34247735046     PISSN: 03044092     EISSN: 15730786     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1020447706406     Document Type: Article

References (301)

1. S. Lukes, Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985).
2. E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Irans. K.E. Fields (New York: Free Press, 1995).
3. V. Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974), p. 183.
4. N.J. Alien, "Effervescence and the Origins of Human Society," in On Durkheim's Elementary Forms of Religious Life, ed. N.J. Allen, W.S.F. Pickering, and W.W. Miller (London: Routledge, 1998);
5. P.A. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion and Social Vitality: Collective Effervescence in Ees Formes Élémentaires De Ea Vie Religieuse," Durkheimian Studies 4 (1998): 87-114;
6. D.A. Nielsen, Three Faces of God: Society, Religion, and the Categories of Totality in the Philosophy of Emile Durkheim (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999);
7. M. Ono, "Collective Effervescence and Symbolism," Durkheim Studies/Etudes Durkheimiennes 2 (1996): 79-98;
8. W.S.F. Pickering, ed., Durkheim and Representations (London: Routledge, 2000);
9. C. Shilling and P.A. Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity: Collective Effervescence, Homo Duplex and the Sources of Moral Action," British Journal of Sociology 49, no. 2 (1998): 193-209.
10. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion," p. 99;
11. W.S.F. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), p. 144;
12. W. Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation and Representation in the Elementary Forms" in On Durkheim 's Elementary Forms of Religious Life, ed. N.J. Allen, W.S.F. Pickering, and W.W. Miller (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 416;
13. P. Smith and J.C. Alexander, "Durkheim's Religious Revival," American Journal of Sociology 102, no. 2 (1996): 585-592, p. 587.
14. W.S.F. Pickering, "Introduction," in Durkheim on Religion, ed. W.S.F. Pickering (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), p. 2;
15. see also Smith and Alexander, "Durkheim's Religious Revival";
16. E. Wallwork, "Durkheim's Early Sociology of Religion," Sociological Analysis 46 (1985): 201-218.
17. Durkheim, Elementary Forms.
18. N.J. Alien, W.S.F. Pickering, and W.W. Miller, eds., On Durkheim 's Elementary Forms of Religious Life (London: Routledge, 1998);
19. M. Gane, ed., The Radical Sociology of Durkheim and Mauss (London: Routledge, 1993);
20. W.W. Miller, Durkheim, Morals and Modernity (London: UCE Press, 1996);
21. Pickering, "Introduction," Durkheim on Religion; Pickering, ed., Durkheim and Representations; S.P. Turner, éd., Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Moralist (London: Routledge, 1993)
22. R.A. Nisbet, Emile Durkheim (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), p. 74;
23. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology;
24. Pickering, "Introduction," Durkheim on Religion, p. 3.
25. E. Durkheim, "Préface," L'Année sociologique II (1899): i-vii, pp. i-iv; Eukes, Emile Durkheim, 237n.
26. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 421.
27. Pickering, "Introduction," Durkheim on Religion, p. 4.
28. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology;
29. Pickering, "Introduction," Durkheim on Religion, p. 3;
30. Smith and Alexander, "Durkheim's Religious Revival," p. 585.
31. Eukes, Emile Durkheim.
32. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology;
33. Pickering, "Introduction," Durkheim on Religion, p. 3.
34. Nielsen, Three Faces, p. 181.
35. E. Durkheim, "Eettres Au Directeur De Ea Revue Néo-Scolastique" Revue neo-scolastique XIV (1907): 606-607, 612-614.
36. See also Eukes, Emile Durkheim, p. 237;
37. Nielsen, Three Faces, p. 11;
38. Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, pp. 60-76.
39. Eukes, Emile Durkheim, pp. 239-241.
40. Eukes, Emile Durkheim, Ibid., p. 240.
41. Durkheim, Elementary Forms.
42. For summaries, see S.E. Carlton-Ford, The Effects of Ritual and Charisma: The Creation of Collective Effervescence and the Support of Psychic Strength (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993), pp. 22-29;
43. Evans-Pritchard, Theories of Primitive Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp. 64-68;
44. Eukes, Emile Durkheim, pp. 477-485;
45. G.D. McCarthy, "The Elementary Form of the Religious Eife," Scottish Journal of Religious Studies 3, no. 2 (1982): 87-106.
46. Eukes, Emile Durkheim, pp. 482-485.
47. Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 416.
48. See also Smith and Alexander, "Durkheim's Religious Revival."
49. D. Handelman, "Is Victor Turner Receiving His Intellectual Due?" Journal of Ritual Studies 1 (1993): 117-124, p. 119.
50. N.Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975);
51. E. Ee Roy Eadurie, Carnival in Romans, trans. Mary Feeney (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1979);
52. P. Shaw, American Patriots and Rituals of Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981).
53. H. Cox, Religion in the Secular City: Toward a Postmodern Theology (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984);
54. T.F. Driver, Christ in a Changing World: Toward an Ethical Christology (New York: Crossroad, 1981);
55. I. Giihus, "Gnosticism: A Study in Liminal Symbolism," Numen 31, no. 1 (1984): 106-128;
56. U. Holmes, "Ritual and the Social Drama," Worship 51 (1977): 197-213;
57. R.J. Nichols, "Worship as Anti-Structure: The Contribution of Victor Turner," Theology Today 41 (1985): 401-409;
58. C.F. Starkloff, "Church as Structure and Communitas: Victor Turner and Ecclesiology," Theological Studies 58 (1997): 643-668.
59. V.P. Gay, "Ritual and Self-Esteem in Victor Turner and Heinz Kohut," Zygon 18, no. 3 (1983): 271-282;
60. R. Moore, "Contemporary Psychotherapy as Ritual Process: An Initial Reconnaissance," Zygon 18, no. 3 (1983): 283-294.
61. R. Schechner, Essays on Performance Theory: 1970-1976 (New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1977).
62. R.D. Hecht, "Comparative Liminality: Introduction to the Papers from the Jerusalem Seminar," Religion 15 (1985): 201-203.
63. P.L. MacLaren, "Classroom Symbols and the Ritual Dimension of Schooling," Anthropologica 27, no. 1-2 (1985): 161-189;
64. RE. Manning, "Victor Turner's Career and Publications," in Victor Turner and the Construction of Cultural Criticism: Between Literature and Anthropology, ed. K.M. Ashley (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990).
65. K.M. Ashley, Victor Turner and the Construction of Cultural Criticism: Between Literature and Anthropology (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990).
66. F.A. Salamone, "The Ritual of Jazz Performance," Play and Culture 1, no. 2 (1988): 85-104.
67. E. Cohen, "Tourism as Play," Religion 15 (1985): 291-304.
68. S.N. Eisenstadt, "Comparative Eiminality: Eiminality and Dynamics of Civilization," Religion 15 (1985): 315-338.
69. D. Weber, "From Eimen to Border: A Meditation on the Eegacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1995): 525-536.
70. M. Heyd, "The Reaction to Enthusiasm in the 17th Century: From Antistructure to Structure," Religion 15 (1985): 279-289.
71. Handelman, "Intellectual Due."
72. See for example, E.G. Perdue, "Eiminality as a Social Setting for Wisdom Instructions," Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaβ 93, no. 1 (1981): 114-126;
73. R.G. Williams, "Worship and Anti-Structure in Thurman's Vision of the Sacred," Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Center 14 (1986): 161-174.
74. E.E.B. Turner, "Prologue: From the Ndembu to Broadway," in On the Edge of the Bush: Anthropology as Experience, ed. V. Turner (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1985).
75. V. Turner, Process, Performance and Pilgrimage (New Delhi: Concept Publishing, 1979), p. 16.
76. B.C. Alexander, "Pentecostal Studies of Ritual Reconsidered: Anti-Structural Dimensions of Possession," Journal of Ritual Studies 3, no. 1 (1989): 109-128;
77. B.C. Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations of Turner's Theory: An African-American Pentecostal Illustration," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30, no. 1 (1991): 26-4-4;
78. B.C. Alexander, Victor Turner Revisited: Ritual as Social Change (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991);
79. M. Deflem, "Ritual, Anti-Structure, and Religion: A Discussion of Victor Turner's Processual Symbolic Analysis," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30, no. 1 (1991): 1-25;
80. B. Jules-Rosette, "Decentering Ethnography: Victor Turner's Vision of Anthropology," Journal of Religion in Africa 24, no. 2 (1994): 160-181;
81. Manning, "Victor Turner's Career"; D. Zadra, "Victor Turner's Theory of Religion: Toward an Analysis of Symbolic Time," in Anthropology and the Study of Religion, ed. R. Moore and F.S. Reynolds (Chicago: Center for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1984).
82. C. Bell, "Ritual, Change, and Changing Rituals," Worship 63 (1989): 31-41;
83. R. Grimes, "Ritual Studies: A Comparative Review of Theodor Gaster and Victor Turner," Religious Studies Review 2, no. 4 (1976): 13-25;
84. R. Grimes, "Victor Turner's Social Drama and T.S. Eliot's Ritual Drama," Anthropologica 27, no. 1-2 (1985): 79-99;
85. E. Oring, "Victor Turner, Sigmund Freud, and the Return of the Repressed," Ethos 21, no. 3 (1993): 273-294;
86. K. Pechilis, "To Pilgrimage It," Journal of Ritual Studies 6, no. 2 (1992): 59-91;
87. R. Schechner, "Victor Turner's East Adventure," in The Anthropology of Performance, ed. V. Turner (New York: PAJ Publications, 1986);
88. C. Walker Bynum, "Women's Stories, Women's Symbols: A Critique of Victor Turner's Theory of Eiminality," in Anthropology and the Study of Religion, ed. R. Moore and F.S. Reynolds (Chicago: Center for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1984).
89. V. Turner, The Drums of Affliction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), p. 6.
90. Ibid., p. 23.
91. Miller, Morals and Modernity, p. 236;
92. Ono, "Collective Effervescence";
93. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, pp. 313, 324.
94. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 226.
95. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, Ibid., pp. 226, 206, 432.
96. See also E. Durkheim, "Contribution to Discussion: "Science Et Religion"," Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie IX (1909): 56-60, p. 59.
97. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 227.
98. Durkheim, Ibid., pp. 229, 419.
99. See also Eukes, Emile Durkheim, p. 473;
100. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 278.
101. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, pp. 419, 421.
102. Wallwork, "Durkheim's Early Sociology."
103. Miller, Morals and Modernity, p. 13.
104. See also R. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), p. 239; Carlton-Ford, Ritual and Charisma, pp. 3-5.
105. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 321.
106. See H. Alpert, "Durkheim's Functional Theory of Ritual," Sociology and Social Research 23 (1938): 103-108;
107. H. Alpert, Emile Durkheim and His Sociology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939);
108. Carlton-Ford, Ritual and Charisma, pp. 1718; Nielsen, Three Faces; Ono, "Collective Effervescence";
109. T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (New York: Free Press, 1967);
110. R.A. Segal, "The De-Sociologizing of the Sociology of Religion," Scottish Journal of Religious Studies 1, no. 1 (1986): 528, p. 10;
111. R.A. Segal, "Interpreting and Explaining Religion: Geertz and Durkheim," Soundings 71 (1988): 29-52, p. 39.
112. Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 323.
113. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 352.
114. Ibid., p. 374.
115. See also E. Durkheim and M. Mauss, review of Frazer - Totemism and Exogamy, vol. IV
116. and Durkheim - Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le système totémique en Australie, L'Année sociologique XII (1913): 91-98; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 86.
117. By assemblies, Durkheim does not simply mean crowds, mobs, or hordes. He was sometimes criticized for placing at the heart of his notion of effervescent assembly a type of crowd psychology or hysteria; see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), p. 20; Evans-Pritchard, Primitive Religion, p. 68;
118. A.A. Goldenweiser, review of Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse, American Anthropologist 17 (1915): 719-735;
119. A.A. Goldenweiser, "Religion and Society: A Critique of Emile Durkheim's Theory of the Origin and Nature of Religion," Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods (1917): 113-124. Butas Pickering explains, this was not his intended meaning (Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, pp. 395-417).
120. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 425.
121. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, Ibid., pp. 327-328.
122. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, Ibid., p. 220.
123. Several authors have recently pointed out the decades-old erroneous interpretation of Durkheim as a staunch positivist when in fact an idealist conception of human existence and society was present in his thought throughout his career. See Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, Pickering, ed., Durkheim and Representations.
124. An interesting point is made in relation to this idea under the entry "symbolic anthropology," in T. Barfield, ed., The Dictionary of Anthropology (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), p. 460: "... the agenda of symbolic anthropology was already worked out in large part by the students of Emile Durkheim in the early decades of this century. Had World War I not intervened, they might well have carried it through to field research."
125. W.S.F. Pickering, "Introduction," in Durkheim and Representations, ed. W.S.F. Pickering (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 2.
126. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 48. See also Nielsen, Three Faces; Ono, "Collective Effervescence."
127. See also K. Thompson, "Durkheim, Ideology and the Sacred," Social Compass 40, no. 3 (1993): 451-461, p. 457.
128. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, pp. 221-223, 232-233, 386.
129. Parsons, Structure, p. 441ff; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, pp. 278, 293;
130. W. Schmaus, "Representations in Durkheim's Sens Eectures," in Durkheim and Representations, ed. W.S.F. Pickering (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 30;
131. S. Steadman Jones, "Representations in Durkheim's Masters: Kant and Renouvier," in Durkheim and Representations, ed. W.S.F. Pickering (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 37.
132. Eukes, Emile Durkheim; W.S.F. Pickering, "What Do Representations Represent?" in Durkheim and Representations, ed. W. S. F. Pickering (London: Routledge, 2000). At times, Durkheim even seemed to be approaching a type of structuralism, in the Levi-Straussian sense. See Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 285.
133. E. Durkheim, "Ee dualisme de la nature humaine et ses conditions sociales," Scientia 15 (1914): 206-221. See also Pickering, "What Do Representations Represent?"
134. Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology.
135. Ibid; Durkheim 'S Sociology
136. Pickering, "What Do Representations Represent?"
137. Although many of his critics incorrectly emphasize his early writings, which were very much concerned with the problem of conflict and equilibrium in small-scale societies.
138. Eukes, Emile Durkheim, pp. 432-4-34;
139. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion," pp. 92-95; Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, pp. 78-79;
140. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," pp. 195-197; Wallwork, "Durkheim's Early Sociology."
141. Durkheim, "Ee Dualisme."
142. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 209. See also pp. 266-267.
143. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 35. See also V. Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967), p. 37;
144. V. Turner, From Ritual to Theatre: The Human Seriousness of Play (New York: Performing Arts Journal, 1982),
145. p. 18; V. Turner, Blazing the Trail: Way Marks in the Exploration of Symbols (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992), p. 156.
146. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 386.
147. Elementary Forms, Ibid. See also p. 382.
148. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," p. 196.
149. Turner, The Forest of Symbols, pp. 29, 39, 51, 54.
150. The Forest of Symbols, Ibid., p. 28;
151. V. Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), pp. 52-53;
152. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 15; Turner, Blazing the Trail, p. 156.
153. Turner, The Forest of Symbols, p. 30.
154. Ibid., p. 43.
155. Allen, Pickering, and Miller, eds., On Durkheim's Elementary Forms; Carlton-Ford, Ritual and Charisma; Nielsen, Three Faces; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology; W.S.F. Pickering, "Introduction," in On Durkheim's Elementary Forms of Religious Life, ed. N.J. Alien, W.S.F. Pickering, and W.W. Miller (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 2.
156. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion";
157. P.A. Mellor and C. Shilling, Re-Forming the Body: Religion, Community, and Modernity (London: Sage, 1997);
158. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity."
159. See R.A. Jones, Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works (Beverly Hills: SAGE, 1986);
160. Nielsen, Three Faces, p. 208; Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation."
161. See Mellor, "Sacred Contagion," p. 99; Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 416; Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation," p. 144; Smith and Alexander, "Durkheim's Religious Revival," p. 587.
162. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, pp. 217-218.
163. Elementary Forms, Ibid., p. 218. See also Durkheim and Mauss, "Review."
164. See also Carlton-Ford, Ritual and Charisma; Mellor, "Sacred Contagion"; Mellor and Shilling, Re-Forming the Body; Nielsen, Three Faces, pp. 156, 207;
165. Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation";
166. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," p. 197.
167. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 212.
168. M. Gane, "Durkheim: The Sacred Language," Economy and Society 12, no. 1 (1983): 1-47;
169. M. Gane, "Durkheim: Woman as Outsider," Economy and Society 12, no. 2 (1983): 227-270;
170. M. Gane, On Durkheim's Rules of Sociological Method (London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 156, 159; Nielsen, Three Faces, p. 207.
171. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 228.
172. See S.G. Mestrovic, Durkheim and Postmodern Culture (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1992).
173. E. Durkheim and M. Mauss, "Contribution to Discussion: "Le Problème Religieux Et La Dualité De La Nature Humaine"," Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie XIII (1913): 63-75, 80-87, 90-100, 108-111, pp. 84, qtd. in Pickering, "Durkheim's Sociology," p. 407. See also Carlton-Ford, Ritual and Charisma, pp. 16-17.
174. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, pp. 212-213.
175. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 385.
176. Parsons, Structure, p. 390.
177. E. Durkheim, "Contribution to Discussion: "Une nouvelle position due problème moral"," Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie XIV (1914): 26-29, 34-36, pp. 35, qtd. in Pickering, "Durkheim's Sociology," p. 387.
178. See also Allen, "Effervescence and the Origins," p. 150;
179. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion";
180. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," p. 203.
181. Nielsen, Three Faces, p. 208.
182. Ibid., pp. 144, 146.
183. Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 389.
184. Alpert, "Durkheim's Functional Theory"; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology.
185. Lukes, Emile Durkheim, p. 463; Nisbet, Emile Durkheim, p. 74; Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 388.
186. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 350.
187. See Pickering, "What Do Representations Represent?"
188. See Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 345.
189. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion," pp. 87-88; Mellor and Shilling, Re-Forming the Body; Nisbet, Emile Durkheim, p. 74; Ono, "Collective Effervescence," p. 80.
190. Ono, "Collective Effervescence," pp. 87-88.
191. Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," p. 197.
192. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion"; Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation," p. 142; Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity," pp. 195, 203.
193. Pickering, Durkheim 's Sociology, p. 402.
194. V. Turner, On the Edge of the Bush: Anthropology as Experience (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1985), p. 182.
195. V. Turner, "Eiminality, Kabbalah, and the Media," Religion 15 (1985): 205-217, p. 215.
196. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 142.
197. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 127.
198. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 231.
199. Ibid., p. 201.
200. Turner, The Ritual Process, pp. 136-137;
201. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 47.
202. Turner, Process, Performance, pp. 46, 55ff.
203. Turner, The Forest of Symbols, p. 99ff; Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 96; Turner, From Ritual to Theatre, p. 47.
204. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 97;
205. Turner, Edge of the Bush, p. 233.
206. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 127.
207. Turner, Edge of the Bush, p. 124.
208. Turner, The Ritual Process, pp. 131, 177; Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 47.
209. Turner, Process, Performance, pp. 42, 126.
210. V. Turner, "Variations on a Theme of Eiminality," m Secular Ritual, ed. S.F. Moore and B. Myerhoff (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1977), p. 36.
211. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 136ff; Turner, Dramas, Fields, pp. 46, 201, 205, 274.
212. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 201.
213. Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations."
214. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 62.
215. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 250. See also Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations," p. 27;
216. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 131;
217. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 269; Turner, Process, Performance, p. 43;
218. Turner, Edge of the Bush, p. 171.
219. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 234.
220. Turner, Dramas, Fields, Ibid., p. 50.
221. Turner, Dramas, Fields, Ibid., p. 47.
222. Turner, Dramas, Fields, Ibid., p. 297.
223. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 177.
224. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 54.
225. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 153; Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 44.
226. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 75.
227. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 132.
228. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 44.
229. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 285.
230. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 96.
231. Turner, Dramas, Fields, pp. 231, 237.
232. Ibid., p. 238.
233. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 132;
234. V. Turner, "The Center out There: Pilgrim's Goal," History of Religions 12, no. 3 (1973): 191-230, pp. 193-194;
235. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 169; Turner, Process, Performance, pp. 45-4-8. See also Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations."
236. Turner, Dramas, fields, p. 243.
237. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 188.
238. The Ritual Process, Ibid., p. 128.
239. The Ritual Process, Ibid., p. 138.
240. Turner, The Forest of Symbols, p. 102ff; Turner, Process, Performance, p. 20.
241. This part of his theory of ritual has been widely taken up by other writers. See, for example, Alexander, "Pentecostal Ritual"; Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations"; Alexander, Victor Turner, Handelman, "Intellectual Due"; Schechner, Performance Theory; L. Smadar, K. Narayan, and R. Rosaldo, eds., Creativity/Anthropology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
242. Turner, The Forest of Symbols, p. 106; Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 255; V. Turner, "Comments and Conclusions," in The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society, ed. B. Babcock (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), p. 295;
243. Turner, Process, Performance.
244. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 38.
245. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 256.
246. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 167.
247. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 273.
248. Turner, The Ritual Process, pp. 128-129.
249. Turner, Process, Performance, pp. 21, 27, 40.
250. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 110.
251. Although, as Pickering notes, (Durkheim's Sociology, p. 382), Durkheim may have derived the concept of effervescence from M. Mauss and H. Beuchat, "Essai Sur Les Variations Saisonnières Des Sociétés Eskimos: Étude De Morphologie Sociale," L'Année sociologique IX (1906): 39-132.
252. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 272.
253. Ibid., pp. 241-242.
254. See also Alexander, "Correcting Misinterpretations"; Alexander, Victor Turner.
255. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 238.
256. Ibid., p. 274, emphasis mine. See also p. 252.
257. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 41.
258. Turner, Edge of the Bush, p. 159.
259. Ibid.
260. Turner, Process, Performance, p. 132.
261. Turner, The Ritual Process, pp. 104-105, 178, 184;
262. Turner, Dramas, Fields, pp. 259260;
263. Turner, Edge of the Bush, p. 198.
264. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 111.
265. Interestingly, Turner shared Durkheim's belief that the cult of the individual was replacing small-scale and also main religious traditions, even within his fieldwork locales. See Turner, The Drums of Affliction, pp. 22-23.
266. Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 177.
267. Turner, The Ritual Process, Ibid.
268. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 220.
269. Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation."
270. Mellor, "Sacred Contagion"; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology; Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation."
271. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 352.
272. Ibid., pp. 352-353. See also pp. 424-4125, 212.
273. Ibid., p. 351.
274. See also Mellor, "Sacred Contagion."
275. Douglas expands somewhat upon the model I am ascribing to Durkheim and Turner in M. Douglas, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology (London: Barrie & Rockliffe, 1970).
276. Rather than the conservative that he is popularly perceived as, Durkheim was actually a liberal and a leftist, as clearly evinced by the tone of his writing on the Revolution, although he avoided partisan politics.
277. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, pp. 429-4-30. See also Eukes, Emile Durkheim, p. 476ff; A. Mansueto, "Marx, Durkheim and Gramsci on the Religion Question," Social Compass 35, no. 2-3 (1988): 261-277; Pickering, Durkheim's Sociology, p. 392.
278. Ramp, "Effervescence, Differentiation," p. 141.
279. Turner, Edge of the Bush, pp. 159, 210.
280. E.D. Chappie and C.S. Coon, Principles of Anthropology (New York: Henry Holt, 1942).
281. See also J.P. Schojdt, "Initiation and the Classification of Rituals," Temenos 22 (1986): 93-108.
282. A.F.C. Wallace, "Revitalization Movements," American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 264-281;
283. A.F.C. Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1966), pp. 157-166.
284. Wallace, Religion, p. 160.
285. Pickering, "Introduction," On Durkheim's, p. 2.
286. Pickering, "What do Representations Represent?" p. 110.
287. For all of the attention they pay to Durkheim's collective effervescence in a number of recent publications, Mellor and Shilling still do not bring any more precision to the discussion, aside from the already long-recognized fact in anthropological literature that ritual is an embodied phenomenon and involves emotion. See Mellor, "Sacred Contagion"; Mellor and Shilling, Re-Forming the Body; Shilling and Mellor, "Durkheim, Morality and Modernity."
288. Durkheim, Elementary Forms, p. 228.
289. Ibid., p. 218.
290. Ibid., pp. 315-320.
291. Ibid., p. 220.
292. Turner, Dramas, Fields, p. 261ff.
293. And in Durkheim's case, there was a complete lack of experiential understanding of such phenomena, as he used other writers' ethnographies to construct his theory. His presaging of Turner's symbolic and processual models by some 60 years is thus all the more remarkable, achieved as it was without the rich ethnographic observation, experience, and detail that characterized Turner's work.
294. E. Bourguignon, Cross-Cultural Study of Dissociational States (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968).
295. For a review of the literature, see M. Winkelman, "Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour," in The Anthropology of Religion, ed. S.E. Glazier (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997).
296. E. Gellhorn, "Further Studies on the Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Tuning of the Central Nervous System," Psychosomatics 10 (1969): 94-104;
297. C.D. Eaughlin, J. McManus, and E.G. d'Aquili, Brain, Symbol, and Experience: Toward a Neurophenomenology of Consciousness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990);
298. A. Mandell, "Toward a Psychobiology of Transcendence: God in the Brain," in The Psychobiology of Consciousness, ed. D. Davidson and R. Davidson (New York: Plenum, 1980);
299. M. Winkelman, "Trance States: A Theoretical Model and Cross-Cultural Analysis," Ethos 14 (1986):174-203.
300. C.D. Eaughlin, "The Cycle of Meaning: Some Methodological Implications of Biogenetic Structural Theory," in Anthropology of Religion, ed. S.E. Glazier (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997);
301. J.I. Prattis, Anthropology at the Edge: Essays on Culture, Symbol and Consciousness (Washington: University Press of America, 1997).