Psychiatry and political-institutional abuse from the historical perspective: The ethical lessons of the Nuremberg Trial on their 60th anniversary

Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 791-806

  López Muñoz, Francisco ^a   Alamo, Cecilio ^a   Dudley, Michael ^b   Rubio, Gabriel ^c   García García, Pilar ^a   Molina, Juan D ^d   Okasha, Ahmed ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALCALÁ   (Spain)

^b PRINCE OF WALES HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID   (Spain)

^d Hospital Dr Rodríguez Lafora   (Spain)

^e AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Eugenics; History of psychiatry; Medical ethics; Nazism; Psychiatric abuse; Psychiatric research

Indexed keywords

PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT;

BIOETHICS; CRIMINOLOGY; DETENTION; EUTHANASIA; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; LAW; MEDICAL ETHICS; MENTAL DISEASE; POLITICS; PSYCHIATRY; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUNISHMENT; RESEARCH SUBJECT; REVIEW;

ETHICS, MEDICAL; EUTHANASIA; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HOLOCAUST; HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES; HUMANS; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; PORTRAITS; PSYCHIATRY;

EID: 34247515247     PISSN: 02785846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.12.007     Document Type: Review

References (93)

1. Alexander L. Medical science under dictatorship. New Engl J Med 241 (1949) 39-47
2. Aly G., Chroust P., and Pross C. Cleansing the Fatherland: Nazi medicine and racial hygiene (1994), The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
3. American Medical Association. Original 1847 code of medical ethics (1847). http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/upload/%20mm/369/1847code.pdf Available at: http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/upload/ mm/369/1847code.pdf, Date of access: 22-12-2004
4. Annas G.J., and Grodin M.A. The Nazi doctors and the Nüremberg Code (1992), Oxford University Press, New York
5. Appelbaum P. Abuses of law and psychiatry in China. Psychiatr Serv 52 (2001) 1294-1298
6. Arboleda-Flórez J. The ethics of biomedical research on prisoners. Curr Opin Psychiatr 18 (2005) 514-517
7. ARCFI. Aktion T4. Available at: http://deathcamps.org/euthanasia/. Date of access: 02-12-2004.
8. Bachrach S. In the name of public health-Nazi racial hygiene. New Engl J Med 351 (2004) 417-419
9. Baron J.H. Compulsory sterilisation of defective people was legal in several countries besides Germany. Br Med J 314 (1997) 440
10. Bartholow R. Experiments on the functions of the human brain. Am J Med Sci 67 (1874) 305-313
11. Belkin G.S. History and bioethics: the uses of Thomas Percival. Med Humanit Rev 12 (1998) 39-59
12. Biéder J. German social psychiatry in 1934. Ann Med Psychol (Paris) 154 (1996) 147-151
13. Birley J.L.T. Political abuse of psychiatry. Acta Psychiatr Scand 399 (2000) 13-15
14. Bloch S. Political misuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. In: Bloch S., and Chodoff P. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 2nd edition (1991), Oxford University Press, Oxford 493-517
15. Bloch S., and Pargiter R. Codes of ethics in psychiatry. In: Bloch S., Chodoff P., and Green S.A. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 3rd edition (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford 81-103
16. Bloch S., Chodoff P., and Green S.A. Introduction. In: Bloch S., Chodoff P., and Green S.A. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 3rd edition (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford 1-5
17. Bloche M.G., and Marks J.H. Doctors and interrogators at Guantanamo Bay. New Eng J Med 353 (2005) 6-8
18. Cabrera J. Las drogas de abuso como substancias psicotropas y neurotóxicas: breve historia de las drogas. In: López-Muñoz F., and Alamo C. (Eds). Historia de la Psicofarmacología (2006), Editorial Medica Panamericana, S.A., Madrid 1059-1078
19. Cameron D.E. Psychic driving. Am J Psychiatr 112 (1956) 502-509
20. Chodoff P. Involuntary hospitalization of political dissenters in the Soviet Union. Psychiatr Opin 11 (1974) 5-19
21. Chodoff P. Misuse and abuse of psychiatry: an overview. In: Bloch S., Chodoff P., and Green S.A. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 3rd edition (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford 49-66
22. Cocks G. German psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, and psychotherapists during the Nazi period: a historiographical survey. In: Micale M.S., and Porter R. (Eds). Discovering the history of psychiatry (1994), Oxford University Press, New York 282-296
23. Dudley M. Contradictory Australian national policies on self-harm and suicide. Australas Psychiatry 11 Suppl 1 (2003) S102-S108
24. Dudley M., and Gale F. Psychiatrist as a moral community? Psychiatry under the Nazis and its contemporary relevance. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 36 (2002) 585-594
25. Edelstein L. The Hippocratic Oath, text, translation and interpretation. In: Temkin O., and Temkin C.L. (Eds). Ancient medicine (1967), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 17-18
26. Editorial. Br Med J i (1874) 687
27. Editorial. Medical collusion in the death penalty: an American atrocity. Lancet 365 (2005) 1361
28. Escohotado A. Historia de las drogas (1989), Alianza Editorial, Madrid
29. Foster H.P., Emanuel E., and Grady C. The 2000 revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: a step forward or more confusion?. Lancet 358 (2001) 1449-1453
30. Friedlander H. The origins of Nazi genocide: from euthanasia to the final solution (1995), University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill
31. Gallagher H.G. By trust betrayed: patients, physicians and the licence to kill in the Third Reich. Revised edition (1990), Vandermere, Arlington
32. Geiderman J.M. Physician complicity in the Holocaust: historical review and reflections on emergency medicine in the 21st century. Part II. Acad Emerg Med 9 (2002) 232-240
33. Gold H. Unit 731 testimony (1995), Charles E Tuttle Co., Rutland
34. Goldhagen D. Hitler's willing executioners: ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (1996), Knopf, New York
35. Gottesman I.I., and Bertelsen A. Legacy of German psychiatric genetics: hindsight is always 20/20. Am J Med Genet 67 (1996) 343-346
36. Grabo M., and Sapoznikow M. The ethical dilemma of involuntary medication of death penalty cases. Georget J Leg Ethics 15 (2002) 795-808
37. Gracia D. Como arqueros al blanco. Estudios de bioética (2004), Editorial Triacastela, Madrid
38. Grodin M.A., and Annas G.J. Legacies of Nüremberg: medical ethics and human rights. JAMA 276 (1996) 1682-1683
39. Hanauske-Abel H.M. Not a slippery slope or sudden subversion: German medicine and National Socialism in 1933. Br Med J 313 (1996) 1453-1463
40. Harding T. Ethical issues in the delivery of mental health services. In: Bloch S., and Chodoff P. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 2nd edition (1991), Oxford University Press, Oxford 473-492
41. Harris S.H. Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-1945, and the American cover-up (1994), Routledge, London
42. Harvard Law School Library. Nuremberg Trials Project. A Digital Document Collection. Item No. 170. Available at: http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/collections/digital/war_crime_trials_nuremberg.php. Date of access: 27-05-2006.
43. Helmchen H. Research with incompetent demented patients. A current problem in light of German history. Eur Psychiatr 13 suppl 3 (1998) S93-S100
44. Helmchen H., and Okasha A. From the Hawaii Declaration to the Declaration of Madrid. Acta Psychiatr Scand 101 (2000) 20-23
45. Herranz G. El Código de Ética y Deontología Médica. Rev Clin Esp 203 Num Extr 2 (2003) 79-84
46. Human Rights Watch. China: end political abuse of psychiatry. World psychiatric association should act in Yokohama (2002). http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/08/china081302.htm Available at: http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/08/china081302.htm, Date of access: 07-07-2004
47. Jadresic A. Doctors and torture: an experience as a prisoner. J Med Ethics 6 (1980) 124-127
48. Jones L. Singleton vs. Norris: the Eighth Circuit maneuvered around the Constitution by forcibly medicating insane prisoners to create an artificial competence for purposes of execution. Creighton Law Rev 37 (2004) 431-470
49. Kaupen-Haas H. Experimental obstetrics and National Socialism: the conceptual basis of reproductive technology today. Reprod Genet Eng 1 (1988) 127-132
50. Kevles D.J. In the name of eugenics (1995), Harvard University Press, Cambridge
51. Kirschner R.H. The use of drugs in torture and human rights abuses. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 5 (1984) 312-315
52. Koniaris L.G., Zimmers T.A., Lubarsky D.A., and Sheldon J.P. Inadequate anaesthesia in lethal injection for execution. Lancet 365 (2005) 1412-1414
53. Lain Entralgo P. La medicina hipocrática (1970), Alianza Editorial, S.A., Madrid 385
54. Lee M., and Shlain B. Acid dreams: the complete social history of LSD: the CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond (1985), Grove Press, New York
55. Lifton R. The Nazi doctors: medical killing and the psychology of genocide (1986), Basic Books, New York
56. Madden J.S. Euthanasia in Nazi Germany. Psychiatr Bull 24 (2000) 347
57. Meusch M. Hadamar: a German psychiatric treatment center in WWII. Biomol Eng 17 (2001) 65-69
58. Mitscherlich A., and Mielke F. Doctors of infamy: the story of the Nazi medical crimes (1949), Schuman, New York
59. Moreno J.D. Undue risk: secret state experiments on humans (2000), W.H. Freeman and Company, New York
60. Moscow Helsinki Group. Human rights and psychiatry in the Russian federation (2004). http://www.mhg.ru/english/3959925 Available at: http://www.mhg.ru/english/3959925, Date of access: 07-07-2004
61. Muller-Hill B. Psychiatry in the Nazi era. In: Bloch S., and Chodoff P. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 2nd edition (1991), Oxford University Press, Oxford 461-473
62. Munro R. Political psychiatry in post-Mao China and its origins in the cultural revolution. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 30 (2002) 97-106
63. Munro R. On the psychiatric abuse of Falun Gong and other dissenters in China: a reply to Stone, Hickling, Kleinman, and Lee. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 30 (2002) 266-274
64. Musto D.F. A historical perspective. In: Bloch S., Chidoff P., and Green S.A. (Eds). Psychiatric ethics. 3rd edition (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford 7-23
65. Okasha A. The Declaration of Madrid and its implementation. An update. World Psychiatr 2 (2003) 2
66. Ottoson J.O. The Declaration of Hawaii and Clarence Blomquist. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 399 (2000) 16-19
67. Palma-Aguirre J.A., Rebollo-Franco D.I., Gómez-Delgado A., and Villa-Caballero L. Los nazis, las normas ICH y los Comités de Ética. Gac Med Mex 139 (2003) 415-422
68. Percival T. Medical ethics: or, a code of institutes and precepts, adapted to the professional conduct of physicians and surgeons (1803), J. Johnson, Manchester
69. Peters U.H. Un siglo de psiquiatría alemana. Rev Neuro-Psiquiatr 3-4 (2004) 127-162
70. Pichot P. Un siglo de Psiquiatría (1983), Roger Dacosta, París
71. Podrabinek A. Punitive medicine (1980), Karoma Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor
72. Proctor R.N. Racial hygiene: medicine under the Nazis (1988), Harvard University Press, Cambridge
73. Rockefeller Commission Report. AARC Public Library Contents. Available at: http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/rockcomm/contents.htm. Date of access: 27-05-2006.
74. Ross C. Bluebird: deliberate creation of multiple personality by psychiatrists (2000), Manitou Communications, Richardson
75. Rüdin E. Studien über die Vererbung und Entstehung geistiger Stoerungen. I. Zu Vererbung und Neuentstehung de Dementia paecox (1916), J. Springer, Berlin
76. Seeman M.V. Psychiatry in the Nazi era. Can J Psychiatr 50 (2005) 218-225
77. Seidelman W.E. Nuremberg lamentation: for the forgotten victims of medical science. Br Med J 313 (1996) 1463-1467
78. Shuster E. Fifty years later: the significance of the Nuremberg Code. N Engl J Med 337 (1997) 1436-1440
79. Singer L. Ideology and ethics. The perversion of German psychiatrists' ethics by the ideology of National Socialism. Eur Psychiatr 13 suppl 3 (1998) S87-S92
80. Spencer I. Lessons from history: the politics of psychiatry in the USSR. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 7 (2000) 355-361
81. Steinberg H. A short history of psychiatry at Leipzig University (2004), Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie, Universitätsklinikum Leipzig. http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/geschi-e.htm Available at: http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/geschi-e.htm, Date of access: 12-12-2004
82. Strous E.D. Nazi euthanasia of the mentally ill at Hadamar. Am J Psychiatr 163 (2006) 27
83. Vollman J., and Winau R. Informed consent in human experimentation before the Nuremberg code. Br Med J 313 (1996) 1445-1447
84. Wecht C.H. The history of legal medicine. J Am Acad Psychiatr Law 33 (2005) 245-251
85. Weindling P. Cambridge history of medicine: health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism 1870-1945 (1989), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
86. Welsh S., and Deahl M.P. Modern psychiatric ethics. Lancet 359 (2002) 253-255
87. Wertham F. A sign for Cain (1966), The Macmillan Co., New York
88. Weyers W. Death of medicine in Nazi Germany: dermatology and dermatopathology under the Swastika (1998), Ardor Scribendi Ltd., Philadelphia
89. Wiesel E. Without conscience. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 1511-1513
90. Wilks M. A stain on medical ethics. Lancet 366 (2005) 429-431
91. Williams P., and Wallace D. Unit 731: Japan's secret biological warfare in World War II (1989), Free Press, New York
92. World Medical Association. Declaración de Hawaii. Revisión de Viena de 1983. Actas Luso Esp Neurol Psiquiatr 16 (1984) 361-363
93. World Psychiatric Association. Declaration of Madrid. X World Congress of Psychiatry, Madrid (1996). http://www.wpanet.org/generalinfo/ethic1.html Available at: http://www.wpanet.org/generalinfo/ethic1.html, Date of access: 27-05-2006