"There's no place like home": Soviet tourism in late stalinism

Slavic Review

Volumn 62, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 760-785

  Goksuch, Anne E ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 34247443598     PISSN: 00376779     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3185654     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. This, of course, evokes George Kennan's famous arguments in 1946 and 1947 about "containment." In addition to containing an external threat, Kennan noted that a "diplomatic victory" also depended on the United States' ability to "improve [the] self-confidence, discipline, morale, and community spirit" of its own people. George Kennan, Memoirs, 1925-1950 (New York, 1967), 559.
2. Vokrug sveta, no.1 (January 1946): 63;
3. Vokrug sveta, nos. 3-4 (March-April 1946): 16, 20, inside back cover;
4. Vokrug sveta, no. 7 (July 1946): 48-51
5. Vokrug sveta, no.1 (January 1947): 2-4;
6. Vokrug sveta, no. 1 (January 1947): 2-4; Vokrug sveta, no. 9 (September 1947): 2-3, 8-11.
7. On Zhdanov, see Robert D. English, Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellec-tuals, and the End of the Cold War (New York, 2000), 46-47.
8. Nikita Khrushchev, in his memoirs, described his ignorance about the west with evident frustration: "We'd been cut off, we didn't know anything." Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1970), 79.
9. Later issues returned to international portrayals, but often for propaganda purposes. Articles from 1950 about Italy and Cuba described the horrible effects of American policy on these countries. Vokrug sveta, no.4 (April 1950): 13-14;
10. Vokrug sveta, no. 4 (April 1950): 13-14; Vokrug sveta, no. 7 (July 1950): 10-16.
11. On Soviet views of America, see Jeffrey Brooks, "The Press and Its Messages: Images of America in the 1920s and 1930s," in Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Rabinowitch, and Richard Stites, eds., Russia in the Era of NEP; Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture (Bloomington, 1991)
12. and Brooks, "Official Xenophobia and Popular Cosmopolitanism in Early Soviet Russia," American Historical Review 97, no.5 (December 1992): 1431-48;
13. Denise Youngblood, "Americanitis: The Amerikanshchina in Soviet Cinema," Journal of Popular Film and Television 19, no.4 (Winter 1992)
14. English, Russia and the Idea of the West.
15. The need for further research on tourism in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe is specifically mentioned in an excellent recent book, Shelley Baranowski and Ellen Furlough, eds., Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture, and Identity in Modern Europe and North America (Ann Arbor, 2001), 20.
16. The Society of Proletarian Tourism (OPT) was founded under the initiative of the Komsomol in the late 1920s following the liquidation of the (still functioning) pre-revolutionary Russian Society of Tourists. It coexisted unhappily with the joint-stock company Soviet Tourist, run through the Commissariat of Education. In 1930 these two battling groups were combined to form the All-Union Voluntary Society of Proletarian Tourism and Excursions (OPTE). The travel journal, Na sushe i na more (On land and on sea) was extremely popular in the 1930s until it was closed in 1941. See Diane P. Koenker, "Good Travel and Bad: Creating the Proletarian Tourist" (paper presented at the workshop, "Observing and Making Meaning: Understanding the Soviet Union and Central Europe through Travel," University of Toronto, 18-20 October 2002);
17. I. I. Sandomirskaia, "Novaia zhizn' na marshe: Stalinskii turizm kak 'praktika puti," Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost, no. 4 (1994)
18. B. B. Kotel ikov, ed., Sputnik turista, 2d ed. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1941), 6-7
19. N. Makarov, "For Mass Touring," Trud, 27 May 1951, 4, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press (hereafter CDSP) 3, no. 21 (7 July 1951): 28.
20. Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi federatsii (GARF), f. 9520, op. 1 (Central Soviet for Tourism and Excursions). Also useful were GARF, f. 9228, op. 1, 2 (Central Administration for Spas and Sanatoria) and Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsial'no-politicheskoi istorii (RGASPI), f. 1, op. 47 (Komsomol records on the development of youth tourism). Also see the collection of archival documents in A. A. Kiselev et al., Moskva poslevoennaia, 1945-1947: Arkhivnye dokumenly i materialy (Moscow, 2000).
21. Rudy Koshar, German Travel Cultures (Oxford, 2000), 5.
22. John Urry, The Tourist Gaze, 2d ed. (London, 2002), 2-3.
23. On the distinction sometimes made between the "mass" tourist and the "sophisticated" and superior traveler, see, for example, James Buzard, The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways to Culture, 1800-1918 (Oxford, 1993). Jean-Didier Urbain introduced the question of tourism's relationship to the "vacation."
24. See jean-Didier Urbain, Sur 1a plage: Moeurs et coutumes balnéaires XIXe-XXe siècles (Paris, 1994).
25. On this point, see also Orvar Löfgren, On Holiday: A History of Vacationing (Berkeley, 1999).
26. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 252, ll. 2-4 (tourist journals, 1952).
27. Trud, 29 February 1952, 4, in CDSP 4, no.9 (12 April 1952).
28. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 252, ll. 2-3.
29. Ibid., ll. 2-9, 13-16.
30. Iu. Efremov, "Kvoprosy o kul'ture turizma," in Turistskie tropy (Moscow, 1958), 12. Much of the practical work of tourism was led by local tourist, sports, mountaineering, and Komsomol groups.
31. See, for example, RGASPI, f. 1, op. 47, d. 424, 1. 29, and Sbornik materi-alov po turizmu (Moscow, 1958), 158-161
32. James von Geldern, "The Centre and the Periphery: Cultural and Social Geography in the Mass Culture of the 1930s," in Stephen White, ed., New Directions in Soviet History (Cambridge, Eng., 1992), 71.
33. Serge Aksakoff, Years of Childhood, trans. J. D. Duff (London, 1916), 7-8.
34. John McCannon, Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932-1939 (New York, 1998), 83.
35. O. Arkhangel'skaia, Kak organizovať turistskoe puteshestvie (Moscow, 1947), 4, 6.
36. I.I. Fedenko, Volga-velikaia russkaia reka (Moscow-Leningrad, 1946), 35.
37. V. V. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR (Leningrad, 1954), 10.
38. V. V. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR 1954 Ibid., 11.
39. V. V. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR 1954 GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 252, 1. 2. Tourism had a toughening quality. The trip recorder of one extremely rainy hike insisted that "everything went well" and that "nobody paid any attention to [the pouring rain]." Of special note was the "fortitude" of the girls. In Moscow, "all of the girls would have sheltered under newspapers or umbrellas, but here they paid no attention." Ibid., 1.14. Others were more honest about the dampening effects of rain. Ibid., 1.30.
40. von Geldern, "The Centre and the Periphery," 71.
41. John Steinbeck, A Russian Journal (London, 1949), 37.
42. Urry, Tourist Gaze.
43. Urry, Tourist Gaze, Ibid., 128.
44. Arkhangel'skaia, Kak organizovať turislskoe puteshestvie, 32.
45. von Geldern, "The Centre and the Periphery," 71.
46. G. A. Zelenko, "Chto takoe turizm," in Turistskie tropy (Moscow, 1958), 8.
47. At least one observer condemned rest homes as places of slothful indulgence: A "young, healthy man whose organism craves physical activity ... falls into the hothouse environment of a dom otdykha where he spends idiotic ... numbing hours of fattening and obesity, putting on weight." GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 69, 1. 7 (transcript of a 1948 Tourist-Excursion Bureau meeting about the development of mass tourism). The supposed "hothouse" environment of the rest homes may refer to their reputation as places of illicit sexual encounter, fostered in part because husbands and wives so rarely traveled together due to the challenges of obtaining authorized passes for the same tourist base or rest home. This was true for both rest homes and sanatoria before the war. See Mary M. Leder, My Life in Stalinist Russia: An American Woman Looks Back (Bloomington, 2001), 121, 132-133
48. Anna Rotkirch explores the possibilities tourism and business trips provided for intimate encounters and private space from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Information is insufficient to confirm whether the same was true for certain in the postwar period. Anna Rotkirch, "Traveling Maidens and Men with Parallel Lives-Journeys as Private Space during Late Socialism," in Jeremy Smith, ed., Beyond the Limits: The Concept of Space in Russian History and Culture (Helsinki, 1999).
49. GARF, f. 9228, op. 1, d. 302, ll. 64-76, 106-8, 143-45 (medical reports on how to heal various conditions). In 1937 there were more than 60,000 All-Union and republic health resorts of various kinds. GARF, f. 9228, op. 1, d. 3, 1.1 (report on desired expansion of kurorty). During the war, those health resorts that were not destroyed in the fighting served as hospitals for wounded soldiers and civilians. Health resorts were also slowly rebuilt as part of postwar reconstruction efforts.
50. On sanatoria as vacation resorts in the late imperial period, see Louise McReynolds, Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End of the Tsarist Era (Ithaca, 2003), 171.
51. On the same in the 1930s, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (New York, 1999), 246n50.
52. See, for example, Ronald Hingley, Under Soviet Skins: An Untourisťs Report (London, 1961), 45. In 1919 the new Soviet state published a decree on sanatoria and health resorts that nationalized prerevolutionary resorts and opened them to a wider public. Special sanatoria for the cultural and political elite, including members of the Academy of Sciences and the Union of Soviet Writers, still existed, however. In the 1970s, the "thirteenth month" bonus Soviet elites took home was sometimes called "hospital" or "cure" money.
53. S. V. Kurashov, L. G. Gol'dfail', and G. N. Pospelova, eds., Kurorty SSSR (Moscow, 1962), 10-11;
54. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, 101;
55. Mervyn Matthews, Privilege in the Soviet Union: A Study of Elite Life-Styles under Communism (London, 1978), 36.
56. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 24, 1. 85 (1945 report on the status and expansion of tourist facilities).
57. Ibid., ll. 87-89. In 1940, there were 35 regional authorities of the Central Trade Union Tourist-Excursion Bureau, 113 houses of tourism and tourist bases, and 3 enterprises for producing special tourist equipment. The Tourist-Excursion Bureau claimed to have provided tours of museums and other places of cultural-historical interest in the countryside and in cities for more than two million people. Ibid., ll. 85-86.
58. GARF, f. 9228, op. 1, d. 302, 1. 56 (medical inspection of a kurort), and op. 2, d. 3, ll. 6-7 (report on sanatoria). There were organizational struggles as well. See Kurashov, Gol'dfail', and Pospelova, eds., Kurorty SSSR, 12.
59. See also V. V. Dvornichenko, Razυitie turizma v SSSR (1917-1983gg.) (Moscow, 1985), 40. Some tourism did continue during the war. According to Trade Union records, in 1943 there were 1,402 excursions in areas unaffected by the war, with 287,827 people participating.
60. Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 41.
61. "Informatsiia orginstruktorskogo otdela MGK VKP (b) G.M. Popovu-o rabote fabrichno-zavodskikh klubov," in Kiselev et al., Moskva poslevoennaia, 646-647
62. The railroad authorities were unprepared, for example, for the enormous number of people using the trains simply to return home in 1946 and 1947. Holland Hunter, "Successful Spatial Management," in Susan Linz, ed., The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union (Totowa, N.J., 1985), 55-56.
63. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 69, 1. 8.
64. Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, 120.
65. Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 44. Soviet experts admitted that not every worker could afford to pay for a trip, especially to places other than the discounted rest homes. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 69, 1. 29.
66. Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 44.
67. As cited in Elena Zubkova, Russia after the War: Hopes, Illusions, and Disappointments, 1945-1951, trans. Hugh Ragsdale (New York, 1998), 42.
68. Interview by research assistant, Victor Zatsepine, of his great-aunt, June 2001.
69. Sheila Fitzpatrick, "Postwar Soviet Society: The 'Return to Normalcy,' 1945-1953," in Linz, ed., The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union, 137.
70. Nonetheless, the number of individuals who could be accommodated was still under ten thousand. RGASPI, f. 1, op. 47, d. 412, 1. 11 (1957 Tourist-Excursion Bureau report for TsK KPSS). Tourism expanded most dramatically after Stalin's death. In 1961 there were 297 tourist bases and ten million people were said to have participated in official trips and excursions. RGASPI, f. 1, op. 47, d. 498, 1. 4 (1962 protocol of the Central Trade Union on the further development of tourism).
71. Trud, 13 December 1951, 4, in CDSP 2, no.50 (27 January 1951): 30.
72. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR, 3-4.
73. Aleksandr Shinskii, "Zdravnitsa ugol'shchikov," Ogonek 38 (September 1947): 23-24.
74. The Komsomol also earmarked places for its members. "Vosem' tysiach putevok dlia studentov," Izvestiia, 23 May 1946, 1.
75. Vera S. Dunham, In Stalin's Time: Middle-Class Values in Soviet Fiction (Cambridge, Eng., 1976), 5, 17.
76. According to Irina Corten, the expression tvorcheskaia komandirovka has been in use since the 1930s, referring to authors and other members of the "creative intelligentsia" who took advantage of official permission and funding to travel to places otherwise unavailable because of cost or location. "Under Stalin, such projects were closely monitored and the unions were held responsible for [the] ideological 'correctness' of their members' work. Under Khrushchev and Brezhnev, the system became more lax and was frequently used as a means of obtaining free vacations."
77. Irina H. Corten, Vocabulary of Soviet Society and Culture: A Selected Guide to Russian Words, Idioms, and Expressions of the Post-Stalinist Era, 1953-1991 (Durham, 1992), 148.
78. Michel Gordey, Visa to Moscow, trans. Katherine Woods (London, 1953), 381. Official travelers on state business, including the army colonel and the Komsomol teacher, often stayed in local hotels with their simple rooms, hard beds, and communal sinks in the corridor.
79. Marie Noële Kelly, Mirror to Russia (London, 1952), 51.
80. Kelly, Mirror to Russia, 195.
81. Corten, Vocabulary of Soviet Society and Culture, 41.
82. Leder, My Life in Stalinist Russia, 307.
83. Gijs Kessler, "The Passport System and State Control over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932-1940," Cahiers du Monde russe 42, nos. 2, 3, and 4 (April-December 2001): 495. At the same time we also know that registration procedures were selectively (and not always effectively) applied to satisfy the varying policing and purging urges of the regime in different periods.
84. Paul M. Hagenloh, "'Socially Harmful Elements' and the Great Terror," in Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Stalinism: New Directions (London, 2000), 286-308.
85. Leder, My Life in Stalinist Russia, 310.
86. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 79,1. 108 (1948 report on the Krasnodarsk tourist base).
87. Fitzpatrick, "Postwar Soviet Society," 130-137
88. Some soldiers expressed amazement that "over there" was nothing like what they "had been told for so many years before the war"; they discovered that westerners "lived more dignified, richer, and freer lives" than they did. As cited in English, Russia and the Idea of the West, 44.
89. See also Zubkova, Russia after the War, 18, 33.
90. Zubkova, Russia after the War, 105-106
91. Walter Bedell Smith, Moscow Mission 1946-1949 (London, 1950), 280.
92. As summarized by Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 46.
93. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 24, 1. 85. Battlefields have been objects of tourism in other times and places; some of the first battlefield "tourism" was to Waterloo. In 1900, Thomas Cook advertised tours to the sites of the Anglo-Boer war before the fighting had even concluded. David W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia, and Canada, 1919-1939 (Oxford, 1998), 21.
94. Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 41-42;
95. L. M. Loginov and Iu. V. Rukhlov, Istoriia razvitiia íuristsko- ekskursionnogo dela (Moscow, 1989), 38. Patriotic trips to war memorials or even excursions that recreated, for example, the Soviet army's path from Stalingrad to Berlin, were common in the 1950s and 1960s as well. See RGASPI, f. l, op. 47, d. 416, ll. 66-72, and d. 551, ll. 9-11, 63-72 (reports on youth tourism).
96. Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, 125. Postwar excursions often focused on historical monuments, on "establishments of socialist construction," and on the "heroic work of Soviet patriots," but tours were also organized to explore natural science, industry, culture, and agriculture.
97. Arkhangel'skaia, Kak organizova' turistskoe puteshestvie, 3.
98. This growth continued at least through 1956. From a high point in 1941, the numbers of every other type of museum either stayed largely the same or decreased dramatically (for industrial museums and museums of revolutionary history, for example). Despite the increase in the number of memorial museums, the greatest number of people visited historical or revolutionary history museums. Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo: Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow, 1956), 286-288
99. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 23, ll. 1, 5, 27-34, 35 (information on Moscow tours and a lecture for excursion guides).
100. N. N. Mikhailov, "Moia strana," Vokrug sveta, no.1 (January 1946): 10.
101. P. V. Sytin, Po staroi i novoi Moskve: Istoricheskie raiony, glavnye ulitsy i ploshchady ve-likogo goroda (Moscow-Leningrad, 1947), 7-8.
102. von Geldern, "The Centre and the Periphery," 64.
103. "Privetstvie I. V. Stalina k 800-Ietiiu Moskvy," in Kiselev et al., Moskva posleυoennaia, 249-250
104. Sytin, Po staroi i novoi Moskve, 5-6.
105. Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, 114.
106. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 23, 1. 66 (instructions for Moscow theater excursion leader).
107. Instructions for Moscow Theater Excursion Leader, Ibid.
108. Anatolii Loginov, Nasha Moskva (Moscow, 1947), 111.
109. Anatolii Loginov, Nasha Moskva, 1947, Ibid., 112.
110. "Iz stcnogrammy soveshchaniia sekretarei RK VKP(b) i predsedatelei ispolkomov raionnykh sovetovg. Moskvy-o podgotovke k prazdnovaniiu 800-letiia Moskvy," in Kiselev et al., Moskva poslevoennaia, 226.
111. Kiselev et al., Moskva poslevoennaia, Ibid., 225.
112. Iu. Savitskii, Moskva: Istoriko-arkhitekturnyi ocherk (Moscow, 1947).
113. N. Kuleshov and A. Pozdncv, Vysotnye zdaniia Moskvy (Moscow, 1954).
114. Sytin, Po staroi i novoi Moskve, 8.
115. See, for example, O. A. Arkhangel'skaia, Turistskie marshruty po SSSR (Moscow, 1956), 280.
116. Vernye druz'ia, director M. Kalatozov (1954). I am grateful to Susan Reid for bringing this film to my attention. Katerina Clark traces the "reversal of the symbolic meaning of Moscow" in post-Stalin fiction with special attention to novels about the "journey away." Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, 3d ed. (Bloomington, 2000), 227-229
117. A. Yerokhin, "Guide through Antiquity," Pravda, 23 September 1951, 3, in CDSP 3, no. 38 (3 November 1951): 33-34. Yerokhin might have been happier with a children's guide to the Volga, which discussed the history of the river and the nearby cities but also presented their revolutionary history and contributions to victory in World War II. Fedenko, Volga-velikaia russkaia reka
118. N. Moskvin, "The Hospitality of Cities," Literaturnaia gazeta, 5 July 1951, 28, in CDSP 3, no. 28 (25 August 1951): 28.
119. G. Shirshov, "Pervyi vsesoiuznyi motoprobeg, IZυestiia, 15 October 1947, 2.
120. Tourism, nationalism, and imperialism were intimately associated in other periods of Russian history. On the expansion of tourism and the Russian state into non-Slavic areas in the late imperial period, see McReynolds, Russia at Play, chap. 5.
121. Ilya Ehrenburg, "Ilya Ehrenberg's America," Harper's Magazine (December 1946): 568.
122. The portions of Erenburg's travel account devoted to race relations were reprinted (with some of the more optimistic parts deleted) and accompanied by photos from Ebony, in Il'ia Erenburg, "Bel'ye i chernye," Vokrug sveta, no. 1 (1947): 22-27
123. S. Gerasimov, "Na beregu Tikhogo okeana," Ogonek 43 (October 1947): 24.
124. "Rodnaia sovetskaia zemilia ...," Ogonek 43 (October 1947): 28.
125. Khemaiak Kazandzhian, "Amcrikanskaia deistvitel'nosť," Ogonek 2 (January 1948): 3.
126. L. Rusanovoi, "Pervyi transatlanticheskii reis zakonchen," Ogonek 28 (July 1947): 11.
127. "Rodnaia sovetskaia zemlia ...," 28.
128. V. V. Pokshishevskii, "Shestnadtsať stolits," Vokrug sveta, no.11 (November 1947): 2-11.
129. See similarly the photos of factory workers, electric stations, and textile machines in Marietta Shaginian, Puteshestvie po Sovetskoi armenii (Moscow, 1951).
130. "Tadzhikistan's Oldest City," Pravda, 10 June 1949, 3, in CDSP 1, no. 24 (12 July 1949): 62.
131. "V novoi Mongolii," Ogonek 51 (December 1947): 16;
132. Aleksandr Gutorovich, "Na plotakh cherez vodopady karpat," Ogonek 45 (November 1947): 23;
133. Vladimir Dmitrevskii, "Na turetskoi granitse," Ogonek 29 (July 1947): 7.
134. Kelly, Mirror to Russia, 211.
135. Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, 172. Of course, while the particular didactic intentions of the Soviet experience were unique, the fact that tourist sites were so similar was not true only of the Soviet Union. As Steinbeck wryly noted: "A visitor to [each] town in America is taken to see the Chamber of Commerce, the airfield, the new courthouse, the swimming pool, and the armory."
136. Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, 172.
137. GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 361, 1. 10 (report from a tourist base in Georgia, June 1958).
138. Keily, Mirror to Russia, 192.
139. Leder, My Life in Stalinist Russia, 307.
140. Jill Steward, "Tourism in Late Imperial Austria: The Development of Tourist Cultures and Their Associated Images of Place," in Baranowski and Furlough, eds., Being Elsewhere, 116.
141. In 1945 and 1946, according to Jeffrey Brooks, "agents and informers noted demands for religious and intellectual freedom, reduced work loads and rules, increased bread rations, the breakup of collective farms, and legalization of collective trade." Jeffrey Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin! Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, 1999), 196.
142. Elena Zubkova argues that the public was willing to tolerate discomfort and "the idea of temporary hardship" immediately after the war, but by the early 1950s there was a "syndrome of expectancy." Zubkova, Russia after the War, 97, 148.
143. See, for example, Susan E. Reid, "Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De-Stalinization of Consumer Taste in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev," Slavic Review 61, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 211-52.
144. Baranowski and Furlough, eds., "Introduction," Being Elsewhere, 20.
145. G. Rassadin and I. Filippov, "Gorod neboskrebov i trushchob: Pis'mo iz N'iu-Iorka," Pravda, 7 April 1950, 4.
146. E. Litoshko, "V trushchobakh N'iu-Iorka," Pravda, 23 September 1952, 3.
147. This is not dissimilar to the pacifying purposes of tourism in Nazi Germany. According to Shelley Baranowski, the leisure opportunities offered by the Nazi tourism agency, Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy), were intended to "soften the contradiction between entitlement and sacrifice, present expectations and delayed gratification." Strength through Joy, Baranowski argues, was a "tentative but genuine flirtation with consumerism as a means of social pacification." Shelley Baranowski, "Strength through Joy: Tourism and National Integration in the Third Reich," in Baranowski and Furlough, eds., Being Elswhere, 215-216
148. "V gorode-kurorte," Izvestiia, 26 March 1946.
149. On the conflict between communist morality and consumerism in the Khrushchev era, see Catriona Kelly, Refining Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin (Oxford, 2001), chap. 5, esp. 312-321
150. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR, 4.
151. Ogonek 18 (April 1948): back cover. Figure 4 is from a postcard of a similar image, 1954.
152. Vokrug sveta, no.9 (September 1952): back cover.
153. L. Mikhailov and A. Shin, "Passazhiry 'Chernomorskogo ekspressa,'" Ogonek 23 (June 1917): 10-11.
154. "Prodazha avtomobilei, mototsiklovivelosipedov,"Ogonek 41 (October 1947): 12.
155. Encouraging "rational consumption" and the "rational use of leisure" were two of the policies specified in the 1957 recommendations of the Prague Conference of Advertising Workers of Socialist Countries. Philip Hanson, Advertising and Socialism (London, 1974), 29-30. But the manipulation of public desire was not particular to the postwar period. Catriona Keily and Vadim Volkov have argued that in the 1930s "the evolution of Soviet commercial culture [had] as much to do with the manipulation of desires as with their satisfaction."
156. Catriona Keily and Vadim Volkov, "Directed Desires," in Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd, eds., Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Revolution, 1881-1940 (Oxford, 1998), 293.
157. John Keep, A History of the Soviet Union, 1945-1991 (Oxford, 1995, 2002), 23-24.
158. On vacationing as "an arena in which fantasy has become an important social practice," see Lofgren, On Holiday, 7.
159. Dunham, In Stalin's Time, 46.
160. Dunham, In Stalin's Time, 46. On lamp shades and other consumer items, also see Julie Hessler, "Cultured Trade: The Stalinist Turn towards Consumerism," in Fitzpatrick, ed., Stalinism: New Directions, 182-209.
161. Clark, The Soviet Novel, 197. 126. Ibid., 198.
162. Gordey, Visa to Moscow, 354.
163. P. Ponomarev, "Letter to the Editor,"Izvestiia, 28 June 1951, 3, in CDSP 3, no. 26 (11 August 1951): 28-29
164. G. Osipov, "Sanitary Shower," Izvestiia, 5 August 1951, in CDSP 3, no.31 (15 September 1951): 31.
165. I. Rudakov, "Neglected Resort," Izvestiia, 22 August 1950, 2, in CDSP 2, no. 34 (7 October 1950): 53.
166. Moskvin, "The Hospitality of Cities," 17.
167. Makarov, "For Mass Touring," 28.
168. "Soviet Workers' Vacations," Literaturnaia gazeta, 27 May 1952, in CDSP 4, no. 23 (19 July 1952): 33.
169. S. Makarov, "Behind a 'Favorable' Figure," Trud, 24 June 1952, in CDSP 4, no. 26 (9 August 1952): 32.
170. Makarov, "Behind a 'Favorable' Figure."
171. See, for example, GARF, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 54, 1.121 and d. 35, ll. 49, 51, 61, 83, 89.
172. Dvornichenko, Razvitie turizma v SSSR, 45-46.
173. Wright Miller, Russians as People (London, 1960), 93.
174. Moskvin, "The Hospitality of Cities," 2.
175. I have borrowed this very useful notion from Robert Edelman, Serious Fun: A History of Spectator Sports in the USSR (New York, 1993).
176. Dobkovich, Turizm v SSSR, 3-4.
177. GARE, f. 9520, op. 1, d. 252, 1. 13. "Get to know [your country] and fall in love with everything about it," concluded N. N. Mikhailov in Nasha strana (Moscow, 1945), 100.
178. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (New York, 1961). In their anxiety about pleasure without purpose, Soviet experts had something in common with Daniel Boorstin and Paul Fussell, both of whom have mourned the loss of the "serious" traveler, medieval pilgrim, and European literary traveler and condemned the modern tourist who does not travel in search of "real" knowledge. That said, the British literary travel Fussell extols is a far cry from the mass tourism promoted by the Soviet regime.
179. Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Traveling between the Wars (New York, 1980).
180. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York, 1976).
181. Koshar, German Travel Cultures, 8.
182. Lofgren, On Holiday, 7.
183. As cited in Koshar, German Travel Cultures, 8.
184. I have adopted the notion of travel as a "ritual of reassurance" from Linda Eller-bee's account of her adventures rafting on the Colorado River. "Our travels are not always the voyages of discovery we say we seek. Often they are rituals of reassurance." Linda Eller-bee, "No Shit! There I Was...," in Lucy McCauley, Amy G. Carlson, and Jennifer Leo, eds., A Woman's Path: Women's Best Spiritual Travel Writing (San Francisco, 2000), 63.