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Volumn 6, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 367-389

Gender constructions and gender relations in cotton and chain-making in England: A contested and varied terrain

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EID: 34247427750     PISSN: 09612025     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09612029700200149     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (12)

References (110)
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    • For a further analysis, see also Sonya O. Rose (1993) Respectable men, disorderly others: the language of gender and the Lancashire weavers' strike of 1878 in Britain, Gender and History, 5, pp. 382-397.
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    • Richard Whipp (1990) Kinship, labour and enterprise: the Staffordshire pottery industry, 1890-1920, in Pat Hudson & W. R. Lee (Eds) Women's Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective, p. 186 (Manchester: Manchester University Press).
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    • Pat Hudson & W. R. Lee (1990) Women's work and the family economy in historical perspective, in Hudson & Lee, Women's Work, pp. 28-33;
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    • Linda Murgatroyd (1985) Occupational stratification and gender, in Linda Murgatroyd, Mike Savage, Dan Shapiro, John Urry, Sylvia Walby, Alan Warde, with Jane Mark-Lawson (Eds) Localities, Class, and Gender, p. 135 (London: Pion Ltd).
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    • Ava Baron (Ed.), (Ithaca: Cornell University Press)
    • While "women's work" may have been rigidly defined in the abstract, as Patricia Cooper states in relation to a Philco electronics plant in the 1930s, "patterns reveal diversity in men's and women's experiences and variations in gender meanings which existed alongside the rigid and seemingly clear-cut gender ideology reflected in the sexually segregated production process", Patricia Cooper (1991). The faces of gender: sex segregation and work relations at Philco, 1928-1938, in Ava Baron (Ed.) Work Engendered: toward a new history of American labor, p. 322 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press).
    • Work Engendered: Toward A New History of American Labor , pp. 322
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    • Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Further, as Eleanor Gordon states, "Working-class accommodation to the dominant ideology of gender divisions was shaped by the material reality of working-class life .", Thus, "Women's sphere could include waged work, under certain conditions and in certain circumstances .", Gordon (1991) Women and the Labour Movement in Scotland, 1850-1914, pp. 99-100 (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
    • Women and the Labour Movement in Scotland, 1850-1914 , pp. 99-100
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    • With improvements in the powerloom implemented in the 1840s, the cotton industry could be considered largely mechanised. See Richard Marsden (1895) Cotton Weaving: its development, principles, and practice (London: George Bell & Sons).
    • (1895) Cotton Weaving: Its Development, Principles, and Practice
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    • Traditions and customs of Lancashire popular radicalism in late nineteenth-century industrial America
    • Mary H. Blewett (1992) Traditions and customs of Lancashire popular radicalism in late nineteenth-century industrial America, International Labor and Working-class History, 42, p. 6.
    • (1992) International Labor and Working-class History , vol.42 , pp. 6
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    • 79953545027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For instance, it could serve to "admit young women into a world of getting and spending", allowing them to take pleasure in its "intoxicating power", an experience that otherwise lay out of reach (The First Industrial Woman, Ibid., p. 103).
    • The First Industrial Woman , pp. 103
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    • Gender and labor history: Learning from the past, looking to the future
    • As Ava Baron has suggested, in the history of working people, a tension may have often existed between the experiences and outlooks of real people and a discourse emphasising gender difference which ignored the full range of similarities and differences, of antagonism and mutuality, that existed between and among women and men. Baron (1991) Gender and labor history: learning from the past, looking to the future, in Baron, Work Engendered, pp. 22-36.
    • (1991) Baron, Work Engendered , pp. 22-36
    • Baron1
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    • Women and work in the Lanchashire cotton industry, 1890-1939
    • Jowitt & Mclvor
    • Michael Savage (1988) Women and work in the Lanchashire cotton industry, 1890-1939, in Jowitt & Mclvor, Employers and Labour, pp. 203-223;
    • (1988) Employers and Labour , pp. 203-223
    • Savage, M.1
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    • Technological change and the 'self-acting' mule: A study of skill and the sexual division of labour
    • Mary Freifeld (1986) Technological change and the 'self-acting' mule: a study of skill and the sexual division of labour, Social History, 11, pp. 333-334.
    • (1986) Social History , vol.11 , pp. 333-334
    • Freifeld, M.1
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    • (Manchester: Manchester University Press)
    • See R. G. Kirby & A E. Musson (1975) The Voice of the People: John Doherty, 1798-1854, trade unionist, radical and factory reformer, p. 109 (Manchester: Manchester University Press) for relevant comments of the spinner's leader;
    • (1975) The Voice of the People: John Doherty, 1798-1854 , pp. 109
    • Kirby, R.G.1    Musson, A.E.2
  • 32
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    • Condition of Female Factory Workers
    • 24 October
    • Condition of Female Factory Workers, Ten Hours' Advocate, 24 October 1846, p. 34.
    • (1846) Ten Hours' Advocate , pp. 34
  • 33
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    • The Ten Hours' Bill: Great meeting of power-loom weavers in Carpenters Hall
    • 13 September
    • The Ten Hours' Bill: great meeting of power-loom weavers in Carpenters Hall, Manchester and Salford Advertiser, 13 September 1845, p. 2.
    • (1845) Manchester and Salford Advertiser , pp. 2
  • 34
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    • The rhetoric of Chartist domesticity: Gender, language, and class in the 1830s and 1840s
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    • See Anna Clark (1992) The rhetoric of Chartist domesticity: gender, language, and class in the 1830s and 1840s, Journal of British Studies, 31, pp. 62-88.
    • (1992) Journal of British Studies , pp. 62-88
    • Clark, A.1
  • 35
    • 79953482586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The domestic image and factory culture: The cotton district in mid-nineteenth-century England
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    • For a fuller discussion of some of the issues raised here, see my (1996) The domestic image and factory culture: the cotton district in mid-nineteenth-century England, International Labor and Working-class History, 49, pp. 2646.
    • (1996) International Labor and Working-class History , pp. 2646
  • 36
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    • Report of Leonard Horner for the Half-year ended 31 October
    • British Parliamentary Papers, 1849, xxii, Report of Leonard Horner for the Half-year ended 31 October 1848.
    • (1848) British Parliamentary Papers , pp. 22
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    • Mutuality and marginality: Liberal moral theory and working-class women in nineteenth-century England
    • Ruth L. Smith & Deborah M. Valenze (1988) Mutuality and marginality: liberal moral theory and working-class women in nineteenth-century England, Signs, 13, p. 278.
    • (1988) Signs , vol.13 , pp. 278
    • Smith, R.L.1    Valenze, D.M.2
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    • The working class family, women's liberation, and class struggle: The case of nineteenth century British history
    • Jane Humphries has made this argument in a much maligned series of essays. See (1977) The working class family, women's liberation, and class struggle: the case of nineteenth century British history, Review of Radical Political Economics, 9(3), pp. 2541;
    • (1977) Review of Radical Political Economics , vol.9 , Issue.3 , pp. 2541
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    • The working-class family: A Marxist perspective
    • Jean Bethke Elshtain Ed, Amherst: University of Massachusetts
    • - (1982) The working-class family: a Marxist perspective, in Jean Bethke Elshtain (Ed.) The Family in Political Thought, pp. 197-222 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts);
    • (1982) The Family in Political Thought , pp. 197-222
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    • Class struggle and the persistence of the working-class family
    • - (1977) Class struggle and the persistence of the working-class family, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1, pp. 241-258. Her argument is given weight by the fact that the demand was generally put forward at times of crisis in the industry, when it represented a pulling together on the part of working people to meet a threat to their survival, specifically a crisis of overproduction leading to mass unemployment.
    • (1977) Cambridge Journal of Economics , vol.1 , pp. 241-258
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    • 30 April
    • See Weavers' meeting, Burnley Advertiser, 30 April 1859;
    • (1859) Burnley Advertiser
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    • 13 April
    • The crisis in the cotton trade, Blackburn Times, 13 April 1878.
    • (1878) Blackburn Times
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    • Housewifery in working-class England, 1860-1914
    • Recently, Joanna Bourke, in a study of housewifery in the late nineteenth century, has stated: "What is striking is the fact that many women thought that housewifery was a good - even the best - option . There was a price to pay for the movement; but the benefits were perceived as being cheap at the price", ([1994] Housewifery in working-class England, 1860-1914, Past and Present, 143, p. 171).
    • (1994) Past and Present , vol.143 , pp. 171
    • Bourke, J.1
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    • British Parliamentary Papers, 1862, IV, Returns of the number of cotton, woollen, worsted, flax, hemp, jute, hosiery, and silk factories subject to the Factories Act, pp. 630-631.
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    • Women, work and consciousness in the mid-nineteenth-century English cotton industry
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    • The Trial of Feargus O'Connor and 58 Others, (London)
    • See, for example, the testimony of the Chartist weaver Richard Pilling in (1843) The Trial of Feargus O'Connor and 58 Others, p. 249 (London). By 1851, Geoffrey Timmins states of handloom weavers, "Maybe some of them still objected to factory work, but, albeit reluctantly, had come to recognise that their children's future no longer lay with hand-weaving" (The Last Shift, p. 169).
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    • Further, in districts where power weavers exceeded hand weavers, "the ratio of male to female hand weavers was consistently in favour of males, sometimes to a striking degree", indicating the importance of females, as opposed to males, to powerloom weaving in such districts (Chartist weaver Richard Pilling, Ibid., p. 122).
    • Chartist Weaver Richard Pilling , pp. 122
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    • For a fuller discussion of the struggle against the relay system, see Morgan, 'Women, work and consciousness', pp. 37-38.
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    • Morgan1
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    • John Foster, (London: Lawrence & Wishart)
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    • Pragmatism vs. principle: Cotton employers and the origins of an industrial relations system
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    • Andrew Bullen (1988) Pragmatism vs. principle: cotton employers and the origins of an industrial relations system, in Jowitt & McIvor, Employers and Labour, p. 29.
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    • 30 April, 17 September, Supplement week ending 24 September, 16 and 30 March and 11 May 1861
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    • (1859) Preston Guardian
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    • Mary Blewett has brought out the extent to which women weavers in New England drew on strike strategies developed in Lancashire. 'Traditions and customs', pp. 12-13.
    • Traditions and Customs , pp. 12-13
    • Lancashire1
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    • Cotton employers' organisations and labour relations, 1890-1939
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    • Arthur Melvor (1988) Cotton employers' organisations and labour relations, 1890-1939, in Jowitt & McIvor, Employers and Labour, p. 9.
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    • London, Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics, section A
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    • The 'family wage' and working women's consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914
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    • section A and 150-159
    • Webb Trade Union Collection, section A, vol. xxxvii, pp. 76-78 and 150-159. At times, information collected by the Webbs from union secretaries in the early twentieth century indicated limited interest on the part of women in attending meetings and holding official positions. However, in those areas where weaving was almost exclusively a women's trade, their rate of participation was considerable in certain instances.
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    • section A
    • Webb Trade Union Collection, section A, vol. xlvii, pp. 224-275.
    • Webb Trade Union Collection , vol.47 , pp. 224-275
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    • Gordon's argument, that women often registered impatience with formal trade union procedures but were generally willing to go on strike, is also of relevance here (Women and the Labour Movement, pp. 114-115).
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    • Starting to stop: Working-class fertility decline in Britain
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    • Account of the chain makers
    • strikem (National Association for the Promotion of Social Science), section A
    • - (n.d.) 'Account of the chain makers' strike, in 1859-60' (National Association for the Promotion of Social Science). Webb Trade Union Collection, section A, vol. xxi;
    • (1859) Webb Trade Union Collection , vol.21
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    • British Parliamentary Papers, 1876, xxx, Report of the Commissioners ., p. 293.
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    • (Gateshead: H. Kelly). Webb Trade Union Collection, section B, ii
    • - (1877) Women at work: chainmaking in the Black Country' (Gateshead: H. Kelly), p. 14. Webb Trade Union Collection, section B, vol. ii.
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    • Working-class attitudes to social reform: Black Country chainmakers and anti-sweating legislation, 1880-1930
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    • Blackburn, S.1
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    • Chains and slavery'. A visit to the strikers at Cradley-Heath
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    • The meaning of 'sisterhood': The British women's movement and protective labor legislation, 1870-1900
    • See also Rosemary Feurer (1988) The meaning of 'sisterhood': the British women's movement and protective labor legislation, 1870-1900, Victorian Studies, 31, p. 245. Feurer demonstrates the shift within the Women's Protective and Provident League, which became the Women's Trade Union League, away from the "freedom of contract" argument toward equal treatment for men and women.
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    • By the late 1880s, R. H. Tawney indicated that there was more of a focus on middlemen and the organisation of the trade on the basis of domestic workshops as the sources of workers' grievances (Tawney, Establishment of Minimum Rates, pp. 22-24).
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    • Tawney1
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    • 6 January 1883
    • Female labour, Country Advertiser, 6 January 1883;
    • Country Advertiser
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    • 24 February
    • Female labour in the district, Country Advertiser, 24 February 1883.
    • (1883) Country Advertiser
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    • Mss Pankhurst and the women chainmakers
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    • Mss Pankhurst and the women chainmakers, County Express, 18 May 1907.
    • (1907) County Express
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    • Chain Making: Cradley Heath and District
    • Richard Mudie-Smith (Ed.), London: Burt & Sons
    • George Shann (1906) Chain Making: Cradley Heath and District, in Richard Mudie-Smith (Ed.) Handbook of the 'Daily News' Sweated Industries' Exhibition (London: Burt & Sons).
    • (1906) Handbook of the 'Daily News' Sweated Industries' Exhibition
    • Shann, G.1
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    • Urbana: University of Illinois Press
    • James Schmiechen has described the support for government intervention on the part of working women as well as the commitment of the Women's Trade Union League and Women's Industrial Council to minimum wage legislation from the 1890s. (1984) Sweated Industries and Sweated Labor: the London clothing trades, 1860-1914, pp. 147-174 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press).
    • Sweated Industries and Sweated Labor: The London Clothing Trades, 1860-1914 , pp. 147-174
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    • Employers and social policy: Black Country chain-masters, the minimum wage campaign and the Cradley Heath strike of 1910
    • S. Blackburn (1987) Employers and social policy: Black Country chain-masters, the minimum wage campaign and the Cradley Heath strike of 1910, Midland History, 12, pp. 85-102.
    • (1987) Midland History , vol.12 , pp. 85-102
    • Blackburn, S.1
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    • The Cradley Heath Chainmakers
    • MA dissertation, Birkbeck College, London
    • The Chain Trade Board calculated that weekly wages would amount to an average of 11s. 3d. for women and 20s. to 28s. for men, with a standard week for women considered 54 hours and, for men, 48. Christine Coates (1987) The Cradley Heath Chainmakers' Strike 1910, MA dissertation, Birkbeck College, London.
    • (1987) Strike 1910
    • Coates, C.1
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    • Following the color line of labor: Black workers and the labor movement before 1930
    • Winter
    • Eric Arneson (1993) Following the color line of labor: black workers and the labor movement before 1930, Radical History Review, 55, Winter, p. 56.
    • (1993) Radical History Review , vol.55 , pp. 56
    • Arneson, E.1
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    • Women's history: A study in change, continuity or standing still?
    • As Bridget Hill has recently stated, historians who see patriarchy as the central issue "will no doubt find what they are looking for - examples of the way in which patriarchial (sic) power has operated in the past to oppress women - but it will be at the cost of missing the subtlety of the complex interaction of the many other factors that have shaped women's history" ([1993] Women's history: a study in change, continuity or standing still? Women's History Review, 2, p. 18).
    • (1993) Women's History Review , vol.2 , pp. 18
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    • Kaye & McClelland, E. P. Thompson
    • It is particularly important to note here that, despite established boundaries, individuals are endowed with agency, and thus their range of experience includes the means to subvert, internalise, or otherwise interpret the constructions with which they are confronted. See William H. Sewell (1990) How classes are made: critical reflections on E. P. Thompson's theory of working-class formation, in Kaye & McClelland, E. P. Thompson, pp. 60-67;
    • (1990) How Classes Are Made: Critical Reflections on E. P. Thompson's Theory of Working-class Formation , pp. 60-67
    • Sewell, W.H.1
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    • German particularities in women's history/ gender history
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    • Kathleen Canning (1993) German particularities in women's history/ gender history, Journal of Women's History, 5, Spring, p. 108.
    • (1993) Journal of Women's History , vol.5 , pp. 108
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