Going Public: Shopping, street harassment, and streetwalking in late Victorian London

Representations

Volumn 62, Issue , 1999, Pages 1-30

  Walkowitz, Judith R ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 34247413018     PISSN: 07346018     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/rep.1998.62.1.01p0010p     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. Helena M. Swanwick, I Have Been Young (London, 1935), 82
2. Elizabeth Robins, Both Sides of the Curtain (London, 1940), 167
3. Other middle-class women, with different political commitments, often remember the London of their youth differently. When episodes of sexual harassment are conspicuously missing from female memoirs of the period, as they are from the autobiographies of antifeminists such as Mary Hughes or Margot Asquith, this absence often signaled an opposing narrative design: a desire to represent "being at home in the city" as a "natural" condition of one's own personal superiority, without reference to a collective history of struggle. See Margot Asquith, The Autobiography of Margot Asquith, ed. Mark Bonham Carter (1962; reprint, London, 1985), 45
4. V. Hughes, A London Child of the 1870s (Oxford, 1977)
5. Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London (Chicago, 1992), chap. 2
6. Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women, 1850-1920 (Chicago, 1985), 220
7. The West End has both a highly "imagined" and historically shifting geography. The West End originally designated an area between the City and the royal palaces of Westminster. Between the late sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the aristocracy moved their homes from the City to the squares of the West End. Commerce followed along, moving out of the City and on to Bond Street, Oxford and Regent Streets, Piccadilly, and the Strand. Laborers and artisans also migrated to parts of the West End, so that, in the early modern period, inhabitants with an enormous range of incomes coexisted in this part of town. Despite this diversity, by the early nineteenth century, the West End came to stand for Society. By the mid-nineteenth century, it underwent transformation as a heterogeneous site of commercial culture. In all its incarnations, as Erika Rappaport has observed, the West End was in many ways an "imagined territory." See Erika Rappaport, "The West End and Women's Pleasure: Gender and Commercial Culture in London, 1860-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1993), 11
8. See also Lynn Walker, "Vistas of Pleasure: Women Consumers of Urban Space in the West End of London, 1850-1900," in Clarissa Orr Campbell, ed., Women in the Victorian Art World (Manchester, 1995), 70-85
9. See also R. Malcolm Smuts, "The Court and Its Neighborhood: Royal Policy and Urban Growth in the Early Stuart West End," Journal of British Studies 30, no. 2 (April 1991): 117-49
10. P. J. Atkins, "The Spatial Configuration of Class Solidarity in London's West End, 1792-1939," Urban History Yearbook (1990): 36-65
11. Paul Patton, "Imaginary Cities: Images of Postmodernity," in Sophie Watson and Katherine Gibson, eds., Postmodern Cities and Spaces (Oxford, 1995), 112-21
12. Micaela di Leonardo, "Political Economy of Street Harassment," Aegis (Summer 1981): 51, 52
13. quoted in Cynthia Grant Bowman, "Street Harassment and the Informal Ghettoization of Women," Harvard Law Review 106, no. 3 (January 1993): 524
14. See also Carol B. Gardner, Passing By: Gender and Public Harassment (Berkeley, 1995)
15. Laura Ring, "Sexual Harassment and the Production of Gender," differences 6, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 163
16. am following the example of Bowman, "Street Harassment," 523 n. 31, in treating male harassment of gay men as the "subject of a separate discussion."
17. On shop assistants and clerks see Peter Bailey, "Ally Sloper's Half Holiday: Comic Art in the 1880s," History Workshop Journal 16 (Autumn 1983): 4-31
18. "Champagne Charlie: Performance and Ideology in the Music-Hail Swell Song," in J. S. Bratton, ed., Music Hall: Performance and Style (Philadelphia, 1986)
19. Olivia's Shopping and How She Does It: A Prejudiced Guide to the London Shops (London, 1906)
20. Derek Hudson, Munby, Man of Two Worlds: The Life and Diaries of Arthur J. Munby (London, 1972), 35, 98-99
21. On sexual harassment and contestable truths, see Ring, "Sexual Harassment," 163
22. Tania Modleski, "Breaking Silence, Or an Old Wives Tale: Sexual Harassment and the Legitimation Crisis," Discourse 16, no. 1 (Fall 1993): 109-25
23. On the Victorian transformation of the West End, see Donald J. Olsen, The Growth of Victorian London (London, 1976)
24. Robert Thorne, "Places of Refinement in the Nineteenth-Century City," in Anthony D. King, ed., Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment (London, 1980)
25. James Winter, London's Teeming Streets, 1830-1914 (London, 1993), chaps. 1 and 2
26. John Summerson, Georgian London (Cambridge, Mass., 1978)
27. H. Port, "Metropolitan Improvements: From Grosvenor Square to Admiralty Arch," London Journal 7, no. 2 (Winter 1981): 194-206
28. Francis Sheppard, "London and the Nation in the Nineteenth Century," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 35 (1985): 51-74
29. Gavin Weightman and Steve Humphries, The Making of Modern London (London, 1983)
30. D. A. Reeder, "A Theatre of Suburbs: Some Patterns of Development in West London, 1801-1911," in H. J. Dyos, ed., The Study of Urban History (New York, 1968), 235-71
31. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, chap. 2
32. Olsen, Growth, 82
33. Alderman Laurence, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 189 (1867), cols. 1527-30
34. quoted in Winter, London's Teeming Streets, 47
35. Charles Eyre Pascoe, London of To-Day, 1888 (London, 1888), 27-29
36. quoted in Olsen, Growth, 98
37. See also Rappaport, "The West End."
38. Summerson, Georgian London, 181
39. Hermione Hobhouse, A History of Regent Street (London, 1975), 74
40. Howard Robertson, quoted in ibid., 130
41. Hobhouse, Regent Street, 72
42. Erika Rappaport, "The Halls of Temptation: Gender, Politics, and the Construction of the Department Store in Late-Victorian London," Journal of British Studies 35 (January 1995): 58-83
43. G. A. Sala, "Young London," Daily Telegraph (London), 5 June 1879. Thanks to Erika Rappaport for this reference
44. "The Philosophy of Shopping," Saturday Review, 16 October 1875, 488-89. Thanks to Erika Rappaport for this citation
45. Alison Adburgham, Liberty's: A Biography of a Shop (London, 1975)
46. The description of the West End as a "fairyland" comes from R. D. Blumenfeld, R. D. B.'s Diary, 1887-1914 (London, 1930), 104
47. Henry Mayhew, The Shops and Companies of London and the Trades and Manufacturies of Great Britain (London, 1865), 21:57
48. Simon Jenkins, Landlords to London: The Story of a Capital and Its Growth (London, 1975), 113
49. Francis Sheppard, London, 1808-1870: The Infernal Wen (Berkeley, 1971), 115
50. Charles Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London, 3d series: Religious Influences (London, 1905), 3:97, 98
51. John Tagg, "The Discontinuous City: Picturing and the Discursive Field," in Grounds of Depute: Art History, Cultural Politics, and the Discursive Field (Minneapolis, Minn., 1992), 139
52. T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life: Pare in the Art of Manet and His Followers (New York, 1985)
53. Tracy C. Davis, Actresses as Working Women: Their Social Identity in Victorian Culture (London, 1991), 139-45
54. Colin Ford and Brian Harrison, eds., One Hundred Years Ago: Britain in the 1880s in Words and Photographs (Cambridge, 1983), 178
55. Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship Between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, 1977)
56. Stefan Petrow, Policing Morals: The Metropolitan Police and the Home Office, 1870-1914 (Oxford, 1994), part 3
57. Tagg, "Discontinuous City," 136
58. See my earlier version of this discussion in City of Dreadful Delight, 127-31
59. Griselda Pollock, "Vicarious Excitements: London: A Pilgrimage by Gustave Doré and Blanchard Jerrold, 1872," New Formations 2 (Spring 1988): 39
60. Alison Adburgham, Shopping in Style: London from the Restoration to Edwardian Elegance (London, 1979)
61. On the retail revolution, see Hamish Fraser, The Coming of the Mass Market, 1850-1914 (Hamden, Conn., 1988)
62. On studies of the department store, see Adburgham, Shopping in Style
63. Bill Lancaster, The Department Store: A Social History
64. Michael B. Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981)
65. Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Cutomers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1956)
66. William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993)
67. Lady Jeune, "The Ethics of Shopping," Fortnightly Review 57 (January-June 1895): 125-32
68. Erika Rappaport, "A New Era of Shopping: The Promotion of Women's Pleasure in London's West End, 1909-1914," in Leo Charney and Vanessa Schwartz, eds., Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life (Berkeley, 1995), 131
69. Rappaport, "A New Era," 133
70. Frances Sheafer Waxman, A Shopping Guide to Paris and London (New York, 1912)
71. M. V. Hughes, A London Child of the 1870s (Oxford, 1977), 46
72. Alison Adburgham, A Punch History of Manners and Modes, 1841-1940 (London, 1961)
73. "'Pro' and 'Con' Sketches," Moonshine, 24 January 1885, 48
74. "Why She Wore It," Ally Sloper's Half-Holiday, 6 August 1887, 251
75. Patricia O'Brien, "The Kleptomania Diagnosis: Bourgeois Women and Theft in Late Nineteenth-Century France," Journal of Social History 17 (1983): 65-77
76. J. C. Bucknill, "Kleptomania," Journal of Mental Science 8 (1862-63): 262-75
77. J. H. Balfour Browne, "Partial Moral Mania," British and Foreign Medico-Chirugical Review 1 (24 December 1887): 476
78. "Uncontrollable Impulses," Foreign Medico-Chirugical Review 14 (27 January 1894): 183
79. "Shop Rovers and Shop Prowlers," Draper's Record 9 (3 October 1891): 661
80. Wendy Forrester, Great-Grandmama's Weekly: A Celebration of the Girl's Own Paper, 1880-1901 (Guildford, Eng., 1980), 86
81. "Business Habits," Queen 86 (12 October 1889): 506
82. "Shopping," Queen 91 (2 April 1892): 520
83. Rachel Bowlby, Shopping with Freud (London, 1993), 99
84. "Shopping."
85. Casey Finch, "'Hooked and Buttoned Together': Victorian Underwear and Representations of the Female Body," Victorian Studies 34 (Spring 1991): 336-63
86. Here and There, 20 July 1872, 346
87. quoted in Davis, Actresses, 137
88. Blumenfeld, R. D. B.'s Diary, 9. This anecdote follows on a discussion of the Cass case
89. Sir Edwin Ray Lankester to Karl Pearson, 1887, Pearson Papers, University College, London, 10/47. Sixteen thousand items are collected in the Pearson Papers, University College, London. Citations to the manuscript letters and records are indicated by "Pearson Papers" followed by the locating numbers; citations to the typed transcripts of documents from the collection by Pearson's daughter, Helen Sharpe Hacker, are indicated by "Pearson Transcripts" followed by the locating numbers
90. Lynda Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1988), 180
91. Marianna Valverde, "The Love of Finery: Fashion and the Fallen Woman in Nineteenth-Century Social Discourse, Victorian Studies 32, no. 2 (Winter 1989): 168-88
92. Eric Trudgill, "Prostitution and Paterfamilias," in H. J. Dyos and Michael L. Wolff, eds., The Victorian City: Images and Reality (London, 1973), 2:696
93. Quoted in Nead, Myths of Sexuality, 181
94. On the "Girl of the Period" see ibid., 180, 181
95. Nina Rinehart, "The Girl of the Period' Controversy," Victorian Periodicals Review 13 (Spring-Summer 1980): 3-9
96. Nancy Fitch Anderson, Woman Against Women in Victorian England: A Life of Eliza Lynn Linton (Bloomington, Ind., 1987)
97. Zuzanna Shonfield, The Precariously Privileged: A Professional Family in Victorian London (Oxford, 1987), 46, 51
98. Thanks to Margaret Hunt for this perception
99. Jeannette Marshall always made sure to take no notice, however intensely men "stared." Shonfield, Precariously Privileged, 32
100. See also Girl's Own Paper, 6 December 1890
101. "Answers to Correspondents," Girl's Own Paper, 1881
102. quoted in Forrester, Great-Grandmama's Weekly, 160
103. See, for example, "Paterfamilias" and "Cowardly Insults to Ladies," Times, 7 January 1862
104. "Puella" and "The Streets of London," 9 January 1862
105. Eliza Lynn Linton, "On Walking," Temple Bar 5 (April-July 1862): 132-41
106. "Street Impertinences to Working Women," Queen 66 (July-December 1879): 207
107. "Walking Alone," Queen 71 (January-June 1882): 375
108. Mark Twain, A Tramp Abroad (London, 1880)
109. "Miranda," "Bayswater After Dark," Bayswater Chronicle, 26 June 1880
110. Michael Curtin, Propriety and Position: A Study of Victorian Manners (New York, 1987), chap. 6, 238-46
111. The "Maiden Tribute" graphically described the way the "daughters of the people had been snared, trapped and outraged either when under the influence of drugs or after a prolonged struggle in a locked room"; the "Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon" appeared in the Pall Mall Gazette (PMG) on 6, 7, 8, and 10 July 1885. It was reissued in The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon: The Report of the Pall Mall Gazette's Secret Commission (London, 1885). The quotations from the "Maiden Tribute" are taken from the reprint
112. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, 82, 83. In addition to its age-of-consent and antiprostitution clauses, the Act made indecent acts between consenting male adults illegal, thus forming the basis of legal proceedings against male homosexuals until 1967
113. Olive Schreiner to Maria Sharpe, 24 November 1887, Pearson Transcripts, D2, 3; Maria Sharpe, "Autobiographical Notes About the Men and Women's Club," Pearson Papers, 10/1
114. Emma Brooke, "Notes on a Man's View of the Woman Question," 1885, Pearson Papers, 10/2
115. "Police Outrage on a Lady," PMG, 5 January 1886
116. Between 30 June and 31 July 1887, the PMG carried thirty-seven items devoted to the Cass case. See Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, 128-31
117. For home office correspondence on the Cass case, see Home Office (hereafter abbreviated "H. O.") 144/4721/x15239; H. O. 144/4721/x15239b; H. O. 144/x1523923a. For the impact of the Cass case on police policy toward streetwalkers, see H. O. 45/10523/140292/71 and a "Memorandum on the Cass Case Prepared in Connection with the Savage Case," H. O. 144/4721/x15239/33. Petrow, Policing Morals, 133-34, 139
118. Winter, London's Teeming Streets, 176, 178-79, 183
119. Daily News (London), 6 July 1887
120. Times, 8 July 1887
121. "Regent-Street at Night," Times, 29 November 1887
122. Daily Telegraph, 2 July 1887
123. "To the Editor," Daily Telegraph, 6 July 1887
124. Justice, 16 July 1887
125. Commonweal, 16 July 1887
126. Graphic, 9 July 1887
127. St. James Gazette, 12 July 1887
128. See also "A Chorus of Condemnation," PMG, 7 July 1887
129. "The Press on the Question of the Day," PMG, 8 July 1887
130. "A Father of Daughters" to the Editor, Daily Telegraph, 3 July 1887
131. "Paterfamilias" to the Editor, Daily Telegraph, 3 July 1887
132. On the increase in girls in business, see Meta Zimmeck, "Jobs for the Girls: The Expansion of Clerical Work for Women," in Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunity: Women's Work and Employment in England, 1800-1918 (Oxford, 1986), 153-78
133. PMG, 30 June 1887
134. "How Ladies Are Annoyed in London Streets," PMG, 19 July 1887
135. In a prefatory statement, W. T. Stead explained that he had solicited three ladies of "our acquaintance" to write of their experience, and he invited other "ladies" "among our readership" to offer their testimony of being "hunted into hansoms and shops and omnibuses" to escape insults of pests of the streets. Between 5 July and 27 July, Stead excerpted twelve letters from ladies about their experience of the streets. These excerpts appeared in five articles. Besides the article cited above, see also "The Police Outrage in Regent Street," 5 July 1887; "How Ladies Fare in the Streets of London," 21 July 1887
136. "How Ladies Fare in London Streets: The Other Side of the Question," 22 July 1887
137. "Police Outrage in Regent Street."
138. "The Male Pests of the Street."
139. Ibid
140. "How Ladies Fare in the Streets of London." "The Male Pests of the Street."
141. "How Ladies Fare in London Streets."
142. "Mrs. Laura Ormiston Chant," Who Was Who, 1916-28 (London, 1928), 189
143. For Mrs. Chant's subsequent crusade against the Empire Theatre, see Mrs. Ormiston Chant, Why We Attacked the Empire (London, 1894)
144. Edward Bristow, Vice and Vigilance: Purity Movements in Britain Since 1700 (London, 1977), chap. 9
145. Lucy Bland, Banishing the Beast: English Feminism and Sexual Morality, 1885-1914 (Harmondsworth, Eng., 1995), chap. 3
146. "How Ladies Are Annoyed."
147. Pamela Walker, "'Pulling the Devil's Kingdom Down': Gender and Popular Culture in the Salvation Army, 1865-1895" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1991)
148. Josephine Butler, "Catherine Booth," Contemporary Review (November 1890): 648
149. Mrs. General Booth, "Women as Preachers," PMG, 31 January 1886
150. On the liberty cap, see Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984), chap. 2
151. This emulation may be seen in the career of Annie Besant, who adopted the dress of factory girls during her socialist phase; Rosemary Dinnage, Annie Besant (Harmondsworth, Eng., 1986), 79
152. Peter Cominos, "Late-Victorian Sexual Respectability and the Social System," International Review of Sexual History 8 (1963): 18-48, 216-50
153. Stead published excerpts from nine letters from "gentlemen" who supported the views of lady correspondents. Only two were identified by their proper names; others were identified by their occupation ("a Surgeon," "a reverend gendemen," a "legal" correspondent) or by their membership in the Army and Navy Club. One correspondent was identified as "paterfamilias"; most of them wrote of shopping ladies as family members - sisters, mothers, daughters. See "How Ladies Fare in the Streets of London" and "The 'Male Pest.'"
154. "How Ladies Fare in the Streets of London."
155. "What the 'Male Pests' Have to Say for Themselves," PMG, 30 July 1887; "The Other Side of the Question." Stead published excerpts from five letters from male pests, identified as "A Plea for Followers," "Le Monsieur Qui a Suivi les Dames," "An Observer in Mayfair," and two "Men of the World," one from "Cambridge," another called "A Socialist."
156. "The Other Side of the Question." On the theme of Oriental sequestration of women, see Billie Melman, Women's Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718-1918: Sexuality, Religion, and Work (Ann Arbor, 1992)
157. Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity, and Representation (London, 1996)
158. John Berger, Ways of Seeing (New York, 1973)
159. Laurence Senelick, "Melodramatic Gesture in Carte-de-Visite Photographs," Theater 18, no. 2 (1987): 5-13
160. "Eroticism in Early Theatrical Photography," Theater History Studies 11 (1991): 1-49
161. Tracy C. Davis, "The Actress in Victorian Pornography," Theatre Journal 41, no. 3 (October 1989): 294-315
162. Helmut Gersheim, The History of Photography: From the Earliest Use of the Camera Obscura in the Eleventh Century up to 1914 (Oxford, 1955), 230-32
163. Gersheim, History of Photography, 295; 304-5
164. Robert E. Mensel, "Kodakers Lying in Wait," American Quarterly 43 (March 1991): 24-45
165. British Journal of Photography (23 December 1895): 818
166. "What the 'Male Pests.'"
167. Peter Bailey, "Parasexuality and Glamour: The Victorian Barmaid as Cultural Prototype," Gender and History 2, no. 2 (Summer 1990): 148-72
168. Peter Bailey, "Conspiracies of Meaning: Music Hall Culture and the Knowingness of Popular Culture," Past and Present no. 144 (August 1994): 138-70
169. In October 1894, E. Ray Lankester was arrested for not "moving on" in Piccadilly Circus at midnight. He wrote to the secretary of state, explaining that he had been mistaken for a souteneur. Besides introducing himself as an Oxford professor and member of "well-known clubs," he also took the trouble to describe what he was wearing at the time of the arrest: the "usual garment of a London resident ... a tall hat and frock coat"; E. Ray Lankester, 1 November 1895, H. O., 45/9711/A51190
170. Peter Stallybrass, "Patriarchal Territories: The Body Enclosed," in Margaret W. Ferguson et al., Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourse of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe (Chicago, 1986), 123-42
171. Geoffrey Crossick, "From Gentlemen to the Residuum: Languages of Social Description in Victorian Britain," in Penelope J. Corfield, ed., Language, History, and Class (Oxford, 1991), 165-66, 177-78
172. "What the 'Male Pests.'" See the correspondence cited in note 44 between Karl Pearson and E. Ray Lankester, both of whom considered themselves to be radicals and sympathetic to socialism. See also Annie Besant's condemnation of E. Belford Bax's "misogynist" comments about the Cass case: "Misogyny in Excelsis," To-Day, August 1887, 51-56
173. Miss Cass, quoted in "The Police Outrage in Regent Street: The Experience of the Victim," PMG, 4 July 1887
174. As Peter Bailey observes, the shop girl as milliner "pursued an occupation that had throughout the century been regarded as a cover for prostitution"; "'Naughty but Nice': Musical Comedy and the Rhetoric of the Girl, 1892-1914," in Michael R. Booth and Joel H. Kaplan, eds., The Edwardian Theatre: Essays on Performance and the Stage (Cambridge, 1996), 46
175. Jürgen Habermas, "The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique 5, no. 2 (1974): 49-55
176. Simon Watney, Policing Desire: Pornography, AIDS, and the Media (Minneapolis, Minn., 1989), 42
177. W. T. Stead, "Government by Journalism," The Contemporary Review 49 (1886): 654-74
178. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance, and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the Invention of Tradition, c. 1820-1977," in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), 101-65
179. Thomas Richards, "The Image of Victoria in the Year of Jubilee," Victorian Studies 30, no. 4 (Autumn 1987): 7-32
180. Jane MacKay and Pat Thane, "The Englishwoman," in Robert Colls and Philip Dodd, Englishness: Culture and Politics, 1880-1920 (London, 1986), 191-229
181. Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), 20-23
182. Marina Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (New York, 1985)
183. Henry Mayhew and Bracebridge Hemyng, "The Prostitute Class Generally," in Henry Mayhew, ed., London Labour and the London Poor (1861; reprint, New York, 1968), 4:205
184. Jane Traies, "Jones and the Working Girl: Class Marginality in Music-Hall Song, 1860-1900," in Jacqueline Bratton, ed., Music Hall: Performance and Style (New York, 1987), 3
185. "The Business Girl's Beauty," Girl's Friend, 17 February 1912
186. Girl's Friend, 18 November 1899
187. "Your Editor Advises," Girl's Friend, 3 June 1911
188. John R. Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages 1600 to the Present (New York, 1985), 271-75
189. Frederick Willis, 101 Jubilee Road: A Book of London Yesterdays (London, 1948), 82, 83
190. Clarence Rook, London Sidelights (London, 1908), 31-41
191. Girl's Friend, 21 September 1912
192. "How Broken Hearts Are Averted," Weekly Dispatch (London), 20 May 1912
193. Ginger Suzanne Frost, "Promises Broken: Breach of Promise of Marriage in England and Wales, 1753-1970" (Ph.D. diss., Rice University, 1991), 108, 169, 182
194. Steve Humphries, A Secret World of Sex: Forbidden Fruit: The British Experience, 1900-1950 (London, 1988), chap. 4
195. Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (Oxford, 1985), 73
196. Melanie Tebbutt, Women's Talk? A Social History of "Gossip" in Working-Class Neighbourhoods, 1880-1960 (Aldershot, Eng., 1995), 148-50
197. Sally Alexander, "Becoming a Woman in London in the 1920s and 1930s," in Metropolis London: Histories and Representations Since 1800, ed. David Feldman and Gareth Stedman Jones (London, 1989), 245-71
198. Bailey, "'Naughty but Nice,'" 55
199. Sally Alexander, "The Mysteries and Secrets of Women's Bodies: Sexual Knowledge in the First Half of the Twentieth Century," in Mica Nava and Alan O'Shea, eds., Modern Times: Reflections on a Century of English Modernity (London, 1996), 114
200. As Peter Bailey observes, "knowingness" for women "may have signaled a defensive competence"; it may have "functioned in scouting the risks of ... ambiguous new freedoms"; Bailey, "Conspiracies of Meaning," 165
201. Gareth Stedman Jones, "Working-Class Culture and Working-Class Politics in London, 1870-1900: Notes on the Remaking of a Working Class," in Languages of Class: Studies in English Working-Class History, 1832-1982 (Cambridge, 1983), 232, 233
202. Patrick Joyce, Visions of the People: Industrial England and the Question of Class, 1840-1914 (Cambridge, 1991), see notes 43 and 94
203. Bowman, "Street Harassment," 522, 523
204. Karin Winegar, "What I Want is an Hour on the Jogging Path Without Men's Catcalls: Is That Too Much to Ask?" Glamour, June 1980
205. Pam McAllister, "Wolf Whistles and Warnings," Heresies 6 (1978): 37, 39
206. Leonardo, "Political Economy," 54-56
207. Cheryl Benard and Edit Schlaffer, "Man on the Street," Ms., May 1981, 18-19
208. Catherine Mackinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women (New Haven, Conn., 1979)
209. For discussions of street harassment among British feminists, see Dusty Rhodes and Sandra McNeill, eds., Women Against Violence Against Women (London, 1985)
210. Wendy Brown, "Feminist Hesitations, Postmodern Exposures," differences 3, no. 1 (1991): 63-84
211. Muriel Dimen, Surviving Sexual Contradiction
212. quoted in Bowman, "Street Harassment," 133
213. Ring, "Sexual Harassment," 135
214. In the same women's magazines that first publicized street hassling, some letters appeared from female correspondents who insisted they liked the attention of "wolf-whistles" (but not the more offensive interactions cited in the articles). See "Letters from Readers," Glamour, November 1992
215. quoted in Bowman, "Street Harassment," 534 n. 81
216. See, for example, Benard and Schlaffer, "Man on the Street."
217. Ring, "Sexual Harassment," 143
218. Modleski, "Breaking Silence"
219. Toni Morrison, ed., Race-ing Justice, En-gendering Power: Essays on Anita Hill, Clarence Thomas, and the Construction of Social Reality (New York, 1992)
220. Orlando Patterson, "Race, Gender, and Liberal Fallacies," New York Times, 20 October 1991, sec. 4
221. See also Bowman, "Street Harassment," 532
222. On Mona Lisa, see Pauline Kael, "The Current Cinema: 'Brutes,'" New Yorker, 16 June 1986, 114, 118, 119
223. Robert C. Allen, Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque and American Culture (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 201-7