Bayonets, brainwashing, and bathrooms: The discourse of race, gender, and sexuality in the desegregation of little rock's central high

Arkansas Historical Quarterly

Volumn 62, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 42-67

  Godfrey, Phoebe ^a  

^a TEXAS A AND M INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34247228862     PISSN: 00041823     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/40023302     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. David Wallace, "Orval Faubus: The Central Figure at Little Rock Central High School," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 39 (Winter 1980): 314-329;
2. Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969): 252-253;
3. Harry S. Ashmore, "The Easy Chair: The Untold Story behind Little Rock," Harpers, June 1958, 10-19.
4. For a reference to Faubus's nicknames, see David Chappell, "Diversity within a Racial Group: White People in Little Rock, 1957-1959," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 54 (Winter 1995): 448.
5. See also Roy Reed, "Orval Faubus: Out of Socialism into Realism," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 54 (Spring 1995): 13-29.
6. Interestingly, Reed's biography, Faubus: The Life and Times of an American Prodigal (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1997), does not mention any of the incidents discussed in this article. The Orval Faubus papers contain hundreds of letters in support of his actions from all over the country.
7. Orval Eugene Faubus Papers, series 14:8, boxes 498-519, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville. For negative reactions Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville. For negative reactions
8. see Faubus Papers, series 14:8, boxes 520-523.
9. Corinne Silverman in The Little Rock Story (University: University of Alabama Press, 1959), 1, notes that September 10, 1957, was the ninety-fourth anniversary of the fall of Little Rock to the Union army.
10. Faubus was not the only politician who recognized the power of the threat of miscegenation to mobilize white parents. Even Eisenhower commented that white parents were "not bad people [and that] all they are concerned about is that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977), 291.
11. The relatively moderate Sen. J. William Fulbright also recognized "the passion of segregationists' beliefs" stating, "You had a hell of a chance persuading them that it's a good thing for their daughter to go to school with a black man." Anthony J. Badger, "The White Reaction to Brown: Arkansas, the Southern Manifesto and Massive Resistance," in Understanding the Little Rock Crisis: An Exercise in Remembrance and Reconciliation, ed. Elizabeth Jacoway and C. Fred Williams (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), 93.
12. Gunnar Myrdal found that the primary racial concern for the "white man" was "miscegenation." Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944; New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 58.
13. For the issue of miscegenation in the twentieth century, see Peggy Pascoe, "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases and Ideologies of 'Race' in Twentieth-Century America," in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 464-490;
14. Peter W. Bardaglio, "'Shamefull Matches': The Regulation of Interracial Sex and Marriage in the South before 1900," in Hodes, Sex, Love, Race, 112-138;
15. Peggy Pascoe, "Race, Gender and Inter-Cultural Relations: The Case of Interracial Marriage," Frontiers 12 (Winter 1991): 5-18.
16. For an overview of the history of miscegenation laws in Arkansas, see Charles F. Robinson, "'Most Shamefully Common': Arkansas and Miscegenation," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 60 (Autumn 2001): 265-284.
17. Pete Daniel has argued that in Little Rock "the three black males who would enter Central High presented no real threat to white females, but in the minds of white segregationists, they represented the myth of male equality and sexual prowess." He goes on to state, "School integration could lead to interracial relationships, and southern society had no public space for color-line transgressions." Pete Daniel, Lost Revolutions: The South in the 1950s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 259.
18. One of Beth Roy's interviewees remembers most of the soldiers from the 101st Airborne as being Hispanic, Filipino, or dark Italians rather than "white." Roy calls this a case of selective perception. Beth Roy, Bitters in the Honey: Tales of Hope and Disappointment across Divides of Race and Time (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), 251.
19. Anthony Lewis, Portrait of A Decade: The Second American Reconstruction (New York: Random House, 1964), 51-52. Italics added.
20. For example, a Capital Citizens' Council leaflet circulated in 1959 asserted white workingmen's opposition to "Negroized White schools." Sara A. Murphy Papers, box 8, folder 12, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville.
21. Cheryl I. Harris, "Whiteness as Property," Harvard Law Review 106 (June 1993): 1707-1791.
22. For the sake of simplicity, I use the term "working class" to describe those whites who were engaged in some form of dependent labor either in industry (wage) or in agriculture (tenant) and who were poor in comparison to land-owning planters, urban professionals, or industrialists. For an analysis of the transition in the South from tenant farming to wage labor, see Jack Bloom, Class, Race and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).
23. FBI interview with Little Rock police officer Thomas Owen, September 24, 1957, Murphy Papers, box 9, folder 5;
24. FBI interview with Washington Post reporter Robert E. Baker, September 24, 1957, Murphy Papers, series 2, box 9, folder 5.
25. Also see Time, September 30, 1957, 17-19;
26. Lewis, Portrait of a Decade, 51-52.
27. Life, October 7, 1957, 38-46, 39
28. Little Rock School Crisis Collection, series H-27, box 1, folder 2, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Little Rock.
29. Baptist Trumpet (Little Rock), September 24, 1959. An interesting take on the fall of man is presented in this paper - that Eve and the serpent constituted the first case of integration, which led to sin and death. The implication seems to be that if Eve gave into temptation, then surely so could white daughters when confronted with the temptation of integration.
30. Interview with Sammie Dean Parker, December 9, 1992, 2, Murphy Papers, box 1, folder 32.
31. According to William P. Ivy, a Central High math teacher, his classroom doors were not locked, and he didn't "know whether any room was locked that day." Interview with Arkansas State Police, January 21, 1958, 2, Faubus Papers, series 14:6, box 497, folder 6.
32. Interview with Sammie Dean Parker, 2.
33. Missionary Baptist Searchlight (Little Rock), September 25, 1957. According to the Arkansas Democrat, forty-five persons were arrested in the "Race Row," both at Central High and around Little Rock; clipping in the Virgil T. Blossom Papers, series 6, box 19, folder 6, Special Collections Divisions, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville.
34. The origin of the term "whiteness" is attributed to W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Souls of White Folks," in Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil (New York, 1921), 30.
35. Studies of whiteness include: Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race. Volume One: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London: Verso, 1994);
36. Maurice Berger, White Lies: Race and the Myths of Whiteness (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999);
37. Karen Brodkin, How the Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999);
38. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993):
39. Ruth Frankenberg, Displacing Whiteness: Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997);
40. Grace E. Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998);
41. Mike Hill, Whiteness: A Critical Reader (New York: New York University Press, 1997);
42. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Verso, 1987);
43. Matthew F. Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998);
44. Joe L. Kincheloe White Reign: Deploying Whiteness in America (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998);
45. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998);
46. Thomas K. Nakayama, ed., Whiteness: The Communication of Social Identity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing, 1998);
47. David Roediger, Wages of Whiteness (New York: Verso, 1991);
48. David Roediger, Towards an Abolition of Whiteness (New York: Verso, 1994);
49. Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in NineteenthCentury America (New York: Verso, 1990).
50. Arkansas Democrat (Little Rock), January 30, 1958;
51. The number of troops was slowly reduced and de-federalized. See Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1984), 191.
52. Look, November 12, 1957, 36.
53. Ashmore, "The Easy Chair," 12.
54. On the relationship between the Mothers' League and the White Citizens' Council, see Graeme Cope, '" A Thorn in the Side?' The Mothers' League of Central High School and the Little Rock Desegregation Crisis of 1957," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 57 (Summer 1998): 160-190.
55. Southern School News, November 1957, 6.
56. According to a report from the Arkansas State Police, there were 175 mothers. Faubus Papers, series 14:6, box 497, folder 6.
57. Arkansas Democrat, September 28, 1957.
58. See Reid Mitchell, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) for the best discussion of rape during the Civil War.
59. John Wyllie, "Conversations in the South," Faubus Papers, series 14:6, box 498, folder 7.
60. Blossom Papers, series 3, box 6, folder 8.
61. See "Minutes of the Little Rock School Board of Education Meeting Little Rock, Arkansas, June 27, 1957," Little Rock School Board Minutes, series B-5, box 2, folder 9, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Little Rock.
62. Arkansas Democrat, July 5, 8, 15, 28, 1957. Also Arkansas Recorder, July 19, 1957; Blossom Papers, series 6, box 21, folder 1.
63. Virgil T. Blossom, It Has Happened Here (New York: Harper Brothers, 1959), 41-43.
64. A letter written by an African American, Robert A. Wilson, and published in the Arkansas Gazette, asked, "why are people against Negro boys but do not care what white boys do? Whatever a Negro boy can do to a white girl, a white boy can do to a Negro girl. Boys are boys and men are men: it does not matter what race they are." Wilson went on to point out the ultimate irony of the white supremacist race-mixing propaganda, which was that the white man "is the cause of the Negros' different colors." Arkansas Gazette, July 15, 1957.
65. Blossom, It Has Happened Here, 143.
66. See Winthrop Jordan, The White Man's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974);
67. Gary Nash "Red, White and Black: The Origins of Racism in Colonial America," in The Great Fear: Race in the Mind of America, ed. Gary Nash and Richard Weiss (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1970), 1-26.
68. Myrdal, The American Dilemma, 59-61.
69. See also James Tyner and Donna Houston, "Controlling Bodies: The Punishment of Multiracialized Sexual Relations," Antipode 32 (October 2000): 387-409.
70. Harris, "Whiteness as Property," 1725.
71. Also see W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1935);
72. Roediger, Wages of Whiteness.
73. Nell Irvin Painter, "'Social Equality,' Miscegenation, Labor and Power," in The Evolution of Southern Culture, ed. Numan V. Bartley (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988), 47-67;
74. Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain-Freedwomen, Sexuality and Violence during Reconstruction," in Half Sisters of History: Southern Women and the American Past, ed. Catherine Clinton (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994), 149.
75. Also see, Catherine Clinton, "'Southern Dishonor': Flesh, Blood, Race and Bondage," in In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family and Marriage in the Victorian South, 1830-1900, ed. Carol Bleser (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991);
76. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women and the Metalanguage of Race," in "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History, ed. Darlene C. Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed (New York: Carlson Publishing, 1995), 3-24;
77. Ann Firor Scott, The Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics, 1830-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970);
78. Glenda Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1996).
79. The Saddest Story Ever Told, Murphy Papers, series MC 1321, box 9, folder 7.
80. Painter, "Social Equality," 54.
81. Painter, "Social Equality," 49.
82. Also see Jessie Daniels, White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse (New York: Routledge, 1997), 16.
83. Many southern women at the time made this connection, see Lillian Smith, Killers of the Dream (New York: Norton, 1961);
84. Also see Diane Miller Sommerville, "The Rape Myth Reconsidered: The Intersection of Race, Class and Gender in the American South, 1800-1877" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1995);
85. Ida B. Wells-Barnett, On Lynching: Southern Horrors, A Red Record and Mob Rule in New Orleans (1892; New York: Arno Press, 1969);
86. Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992);
87. Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).
88. Wilbur Cash refers to this myth as the "rape complex." Cash, The Mind of the South (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 115-117.
89. Painter, "Social Equality," 49.
90. Hodding Carter, III, The South Strikes Back (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 84.
91. Blossom It Has Happened Here, 140.
92. An advertisement for "Remember Little Rock Auto Tags" appeared in the White Citizens' Council newspaper, The Citizens' Council, December 1958.
93. One of Beth Roy's interviewees saved a copy of the card. Roy, Bitters in the Honey, 387. Copies can also be found in the Elizabeth Huckaby Papers, A-122, box 2, folder 14, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Little Rock.
94. Another example of the role Central played in reproducing whiteness was the singing of "I'm dreaming of a white Christmas" as "I'm dreaming of a white Central" thoughout the school. Elizabeth Huckaby, Crisis at Central High, Little Rock, 1957-58 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 111.
95. For example, a University of Alabama father accused a psychology professor of "brainwashing" his daughter into believing that integration was a good thing. New York Times, May 30, 1955
96. cited in Catherine Lutz, "Epistemology of the Bunker: The Brainwashed and Other Subjects of Permanent War," in Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America, ed. Joel Pfister and Nancy Schnog (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 261.
97. Wayne Addison Clark, "An Analysis of the Relationship between Anti-Communism and Segregationist Thought in the Deep South, 1948-1964" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1976): 63.
98. "'Mrs.' Daisy Bates ...," Murphy Papers, box 17, folder 3 (oversized).
99. Also in the Arkansas Gazette, December 18, 1958, 1. Mrs. Bates and her activist husband, L. C., were seen as being under communist influence. A special Legislative Council investigative committee "laid the racial unrest in Arkansas at the door of the Communist Party." The committee also spoke of "a plan mapped out by Moscow three decades ago." Huckaby Papers (UALR), series A-122, box 3, folder 5.
100. Faubus used this term. See the Boston Globe, September 27, 1957, Huckaby Papers (UALR), series A-122, box 4, folder 4.
101. The Saddest Story Ever Told, Murphy Papers, box 9, folder 7.
102. From a flyer circulated in spring 1957, Blossom Papers, series 2, box 4, folder 3.
103. Roy, Bitters in the Honey, 184. Roy describes Helen, one of her interviewees who was a senior at Central High, as fighting with her mother to be able to go to school. When her mother relented, she took Helen to school "like you go to the first grade of school." Obviously, Helen felt embarrassed by her mother's desire to "protect" her.
104. Segregationists considered those school officials like Principal J. W. Matthews and Vice-Principal Elizabeth Huckaby who worked to integrate the school to be traitors to their race, hence as not being "white." See Huckaby Papers (UALR), series A-122, box 2, folder 14.
105. See Barbara J. Coleman, "Maidenform(ed): Images of American Women in the 1950s," in Genders 21: Forming and Reforming Identity, ed. Carol Siegel and Ann Kibby (New York: New York University Press, 1995);
106. Beth Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1988).
107. FBI interview with Mrs. O. R. Aaron September 5, 1957, Murphy Papers, box 9, folder 5.
108. For this contradiction between rebelling and conforming for white girls, see Wini Breines, Young, White and Miserable: Growing Up Female in the Fifties (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992).
109. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 14, 93.
110. On the moral panics that were plaguing Americans in the 1950s, see: on atomic war, Paul Boyer, By the Bomb's Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985);
111. on juvenile delinquency, James Gilbert, Cycle of Outrage: America's Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford, 1986);
112. Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie: Single Pregnancy and Race before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992);
113. on the changes in female sexuality, Barbara Ehrenreich, Re-Marking Love: The Feminization of Sex (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1986);
114. on sexual psychopaths, Estelle B. Freedman, "'Uncontrollable Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath 1920-1960," Journal of American History 74 (June 1987): 83-106;
115. on homosexuality, John D'Emilio, "The Homosexual Menace: The Politics of Sexuality in Cold War America," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989).
116. On moral panics more generally, see Stanley Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and the Rockers (St. Martin's Press: New York, 1980);
117. John Springfield, Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta-Rap, 1830-1996 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998).
118. See Chappell, "Diversity within a Racial Group";
119. Paul B. Sheatsley, "White Attitudes towards the Negro" Daedalus 95 (Winter 1966): 217-238.
120. Neil R. McMillen, The Citizens' Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954-64 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 185.
121. Such pictures appear throughout segregationist literature. Eileen Boris argues that fears of miscegenation "meant a lessening of white male ability to control access to women, especially their own, a control that justified disfranchisement and segregation." Boris "'YOU Wouldn't Want One of 'Em Dancing With Your Wife': Racialized Bodies on the Job in World War II," American Quarterly 50 (March 1998): 79.
122. Arkansas Gazette, July 25, 1959.
123. According to Milton Mayer, "three times as many white women marr[ied] Negro men as Negro women marry white men." Mayer, "The Issue is Miscegenation," The Progressive, September 1959, 8-18.
124. For discussions of the social control of young white women's sexuality during the 1950s, see Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie,
125. and Bailey From Front Porch to Back Seat.
126. For racial/gender relations during Reconstruction, see Jonathan Wiener, "Class, Structure and Economic Development in the American South, 1865-1955," American Historical Review 84 (October 1979): 970-992;
127. George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984);
128. David Goldfield, Black, White, and Southern: Race Relations and Southern Culture, 1940 to the Present (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1990);
129. Martha Hodes, "Sex Across the Color Line: White Women and Black Men in the 19th Century American South" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1991).
130. Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War," in American Sexual Politics, ed. John Font and Mara Shaw Tantillo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 59-74.
131. McMillen, "White Citizens' Council," 95-122;
132. Lewis, Portrait of a Decade, 62. Faubus sent a letter to Gen. Edwin Walker on October 7, 1957, stating the mothers' complaints about the troops, Faubus Papers, series 14:6-7, box 498, folder 4;
133. Cope, "A Thorn in the Side?," 187.
134. From an interview with Mrs. Elizabeth Huckaby, quoted in "Orval Eugene Faubus and the Politics of Racism" by John Pagan, essay submitted for consideration in the Sara Norton American Political History Prize Competition, May 31, 1974, Murphy Papers, series 1, box 1, folder 21.
135. According to the Arkansas Gazette, the Mothers' League, "referred newsmen to a girl who the league said could corroborate the governor's charge... [but] instead... [she] denied it and said that she probably had been the original source of the charge." After much debate, Mrs. Margaret Jackson claimed that "she didn't know any parents had complained to Mr. Faubus about the troops until he announced it, but she said several parents had been calling her about the same incident and others." Arkansas Gazette, October 8, 1957.
136. Excuses from showers, 1957-58, Elizabeth Huckaby Papers, series 2, box 2, folder 7, Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville. One CCC flyer, "Do We Want this Kind of Public School in Little Rock?," listed the supposed results of integration in Washington, D.C., in terms of increases in venereal disease and pregnancies, with black cases grossly exceeding white ones. Murphy Papers, series 2, box 8, folder 12. Also, Charles Herbert Stember mentions the feared possibility of "homosexual" attentions by black girls towards white girls. Stember, Sexual Racism: The Emotional Barrier to an Integrated Society (New York: Harper Colophon, 1976), 25.
137. Frankie Gregg, February 6, 1958, 2. Faubus Papers, series 14:6, box 497, folder 6.
138. "The Little Rock School Board's Plans for Your Child," Huckaby Papers (UALR), series A-122, box 2, folder 14.
139. For an analysis of bathrooms, race, and gender, see Patricia Cooper and Ruth Oldenzial, "Cherished Classifications: Bathrooms and the Construction of Gender/Race on the Pennsylvania Railroad during World War II" Feminist Studies 25 (Spring 1999): 7-41.
140. For a discussion of the complex relations between race, gender, class, and dirt, see Phyllis Palmer, America in Domesticity and Dirt, 1920-1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989);
141. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Praeger, 1966).
142. On venereal disease as a "black" disease, see Elizabeth Fee, "Venereal Disease: The Wages of Sin?" in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 180.
143. Boris, "You Wouldn't Want One of 'Em Dancing With Your Wife," 93.
144. Elizabeth Jacoway, "Taken by Surprise: Little Rock Business Leaders and Desegregation," in Southern Businessmen and Desegregation, ed. Jacoway and David R. Colburn (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1982), 15-41;
145. John A. Kirk, "Arkansas, The Brown Decision, and the 1957 Crisis," in Understanding the Little Rock Crisis, 67-82;
146. C. Fred Williams, "Class: The Central Issue in the 1957 Little Rock School Crisis," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 56 (Autumn 1997): 341-344.
147. For the role of schools in contributing to social inequality, see Colin Greer, "Immigrants, Negroes and the Public Schools," Urban Review 3 (January 1969): 9-12;
148. Michael M. Katz, Class, Bureaucracy and Schools: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Massachusetts (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971).
149. See "Minutes of the Little Rock School Board of Education Meeting Little Rock, Arkansas, June 27, 1957," Little Rock School Board Minutes, series B-5, box 2, folder 9.
150. Elizabeth Jacoway, "Down from the Pedestal: Gender and Regional Culture in a Ladylike Assault on the Southern Way of Life," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 56 (Autumn 1997): 346-352.
151. See Mary E. Oden, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the U.S., 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1995).
152. Barbara Bergman, The Economic Emergence of Women (New York: Basic Books, 1986);
153. Mary P. Ryan, Womanhood in America from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975).