The United States, the French right, and American power in Europe, 1946-1958

Historian

Volumn 65, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 615-641

  Kisatsky, Deborah ^a  

^a ASSUMPTION COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34247223827     PISSN: 00182370     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1540-6563.00033     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Joyce Kolko and Gabriel Kolko, The Limits of Power: The World and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1945-1953 (New York, 1972), 46
2. and Kolko and Kolko, The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943-1945 (New York, 1968), 446-47.
3. General studies that treat U.S. support of authoritarian governments abroad include David F. Schmitz, Thank God They're on Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1999)
4. Daniel Pipes and Adam Garfinkle, eds., Friendly Tyrants: An American Dilemma (New York, 1991)
5. and Michael T. Klare, Supplying Repression: U.S. Support for Authoritarian Regimes Abroad (Washington, D.C., 1977).
6. for example, Boris N. Liedtke, Embracing a Dictatorship: U.S. Relations with Spain, 1945-1953 (New York, 1998)
7. Eric Roorda, The Dictator Next Door: The Good Neighbor Policy and the Trujillo Regime in the Dominican Republic, 1930-1945 (Durham, N.C., 1998)
8. Frederick Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator: America's Bungled Affair with Noriega (New York, 1990)
9. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: The United States Economic Expansion and Great Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, Kans., 1981)
10. Michael D. Gambone, Eisenhower, Somoza, and the Cold War in Nicaragua, 1953-1961 (Westport, Conn., 1997)
11. Mark Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991)
12. John K. Cooley, Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America, and International Terrorism (London, 1999)
13. and Raymond Bonner, Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy (New York, 1987).
14. For discussions on the nature of the Right itself, start with Roger Eatwell and Nöel O'Sullivan, eds., The Nature of the Right: American and European Political Thought Since 1789 (Boston, Mass., 1989 and 1990).
15. Jean-Luc Pinol, "Le temps des droites?" in Histoire des droites en France: 1: Politique, ed. Jean-François Sirinelli (Paris, 1992), 337
16. Dèsiré Calderon, La droite française: Formation et projet (Paris, 1985), 15-25
17. Malcolm Anderson, Conservative Politics in France (London, 1974), 75-78
18. René Rémond, trans. James M. Laux, The Right Wing in France: From 1815 to De Gaulle, 2d. American ed. (Philadelphia, Pa., 1969), 318-23.
19. Peter Novick, The Resistance versus Vichy: The Purge of Collaborators in Liberated France (New York, 1968), 109-10
20. Georgette Elgey, Histoire de la IVe république: I: La république des illusions, 1945-1951 (Paris, 1993), 26-35.
21. Anderson, Conservative Politics, 75-76
22. Richard Vinen, Bourgeois Politics in France, 1945-1951 (New York, 1995), 1-4
23. Charles S. Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe," in Charles S. Maier, In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy (New York, 1987), 153-84.
24. R. E. M. Irving, Christian Democracy in France (London, 1973), 106-07
25. Emile François, Le Mouvement républicain populaire: origine, structure, doctrine, programme et action politique (Paris, 1978), 128-47
26. Pierre Letamendia, Mouvement républicain populaire: le MRP, histoire d'un grand parti français (Paris, 1995), 358-66.
27. Jean-Paul Cointet, "Le retour des 'sépulcres blanchis': le parti radical de 1944 á 1946," in La reconstruction du Parti Radical, 1944-1948, ed. Gilles Le Béguec and Eric Duhamel (Paris, 1993), 47-52, esp. 51-52.
28. See also Christian Purtschet, Rassemblement du peuple français, 1947-1953 (Paris, 1965), 247-48
29. and Patrick Guiol, Impasse sociale du gaullisme: le RPF et l'Action Ouvrière (Paris, 1985).
30. Surveys of the French far Right can also be found in Nicholas Atkins and Frank Tallet, eds., The Right in France, 1789-1997 (New York, 1998)
31. Edward J. Arnold, The Development of the Radical Right in France from Boulanger to LePen (Basingstoke, 2000)
32. Peter Davies, The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From DeMaistre to LePen (London, 2002).
33. Typology of the postwar French Right principally borrowed from Zig Layton-Henry, "Introduction: Conservatism and Conservative Politics," in Conservative Politics in Western Europe, ed. Zig Layton-Henry (New York, 1982), 6
34. Jean-Yves Camus et René Monzat, Les droites nationales et radicales en France: Répertoire critique (Lyon, 1992), 9-37
35. Serge Bernstein, "French Power as Seen by the Political Parties After World War II," in Power in Europe? Great Britain, France, Italy, and Germany in a Postwar World, 1945-1950, ed. Josef Becker and Franz Knipping (New York, 1986), 163-85
36. William J. Hitchcock, France Restored: Cold War Diplomacy and the Quest for Leadership in Europe, 1944-1954 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), 8-9, 204
37. Gérard Bossuat, L'Europe des français, 1943-1959: La IVe république aux sources de l'europe communautaire, (Paris, 1996), 15-16, 51
38. Michael Harrison, The Reluctant Ally: France and Atlantic Security (Baltimore, Md., 1981), 3, 46-47.
39. See Jean-Pierre Rioux, trans. Godfrey Rogers, The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958 (New York, 1987), esp. 133-50, for a competing view.
40. Irwin M. Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954 (New York, 1991), 68-69
41. Frank Costigliola, France and the United States: The Cold Alliance Since World War II (New York, 1992), 63
42. Charles Cogan, Oldest Allies, Guarded Friends: The United States and France Since 1940 (Westport, Conn., 1994), 60-61.
43. Peter Duignan and L. H. Gann, The Rebirth of the West: The Americanization of the Democratic World, 1945-1958 (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 4.
44. Frederick F. Ritsch, The French Left and the European Idea, 1947-1949 (New York, 1966), 44.
45. Frederick F. Ritsch, The French Left and the European Idea, Ibid., 93.
46. For a comparison of the two cases, see Simon Serfaty, "An International Anomaly: The United States and the Communist Parties in France and Italy, 1945-1947," Studies in Comparative Communism 8 (spring/summer 1975): 136-45.
47. Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-1952 (New York, 1987), 22
48. Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, Cal., 1992), 284-85, 322-34
49. Pascaline Winand, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe (New York, 1993), 1-138, esp. 9-17 and 34-43
50. Pierre Melandri, Les États Unis et le "defi" européen 1955-1958 (Paris, 1975), 22-34
51. Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945-1963 (Princeton, N.J., 1999), 121-22
52. Mark Sheetz, "Exit Strategies: American Grand Designs for Postwar European Security," Security Studies 8 (summer 1999): 1-43.
53. See also Memorandum, H. Freeman Matthews (director, Office of European Affairs) to Robert S. Lovett (under secretary of state), Washington, 11 July 1947, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947 (Washington, D.C., 1972), 3:717-22 (hereafter FRUS followed by year, volume, and page number)
54. Thomas W. Braden, "I'm Glad the CIA Is 'Immoral'" Saturday Evening Post (20 May 1967), 10-13
55. Trevor Barnes, "The Secret Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1946-1956, Part 2," The Historical Journal 24 (1981): 649-70.
56. See also Pierre Grémion, Intelligence de l'anticommunisme: Le Congrès pour la liberté de la culture a Paris (1950-1975) (Paris, 1995)
57. Frances Stoner Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York, 2000)
58. and Ted Morgan, A Covert Life: Jay Lovestone - Communist, Anticommunist, and Spymaster (New York, 1999).
59. Lloyd Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dien Bien Phu, 1941-1954 (New York, 1988).
60. Gérard Bossuat, La France, l'aide américaine et la construction européenne, 1944-1954, (Paris, 1997), 1:29-41, 85-97
61. Georges-Henri Soutou, "Georges Bidault et la construction européenne 1944-1954," in Serge Berstein, Jean-Marie Mayeur, and Pierre Milza, eds., Le MRP et la construction européenne: Actes du colloque organisée les 18 et 19 janvier 1990 au Sénat par le Centre d'histoire de l'Europe du vingtième siècle et l'Amicale du MRP (Brussels, 1993), 197-230.
62. For a parallel discussion of Bidault, see Dietmar Hüser, Frankreichs "doppelte Deutschlandpolitik" (Berlin, 1996), 266-82.
63. On the MRP's shifting and sometimes contradictory identity as a Catholic, Atlanticist, and European party, see Letamendia, Mouvement républicain populaire, 111-17, 339-47.
64. For an overview of postwar French nationalism and neutralism, see John T. Marcus, Neutralism and Nationalism in France: A Case Study (New York, 1958).
65. Hitchcock, France Restored, 74-78
66. Hogan, Marshall Plan, 51-52.
67. See Cyril Buffet, Mourir pour Berlin: La France et l'Allemagne, 1945-1949 (Paris, 1991)
68. and Annie Lacroix-Riz, La choix de Marianne: Les relations franco-américaines (Paris, 1985)
69. also Georges-Henri Soutou, "France and the German Problem, 1945-1953," in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, ed. R. Ahmann, M. Birke, and M. Howard (New York, 1993), 487-512
70. and Alfred Grosser, Affaires extérieures: La politique de la France, 1944-1984 (Paris, 1984).
71. The classic English-language overview of postwar Franco-American tensions over Germany remains John Gimbel, The American Occupation of Germany: Politics and the Military, 1945-1949 (Stanford, Cal., 1968).
72. Brian R. Duchin, "The 'Agonizing Reappraisal': Eisenhower, Dulles, and the European Defense Community," Diplomatic History 16 (spring 1992): 201-21.
73. Keith W. Baum, "Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: The Eisenhower Administration, France, and Nuclear Weapons," Presidential Studies Quarterly 20 (spring 1990): 315-16
74. Shane J. Maddock, "The Nth Country Conundrum: The American and Soviet Quest for Nuclear Nonproliferation, 1945-1970" (Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1997), 239.
75. Diane Kunz, The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991).
76. Wall, France, the United States, and the Algerian War (Berkeley, Cal., 2001), ix
77. For detailed treatments of De Gaulle's strained wartime relations with Franklin D. Roosevelt, see Raoul Aglion, Roosevelt and de Gaulle: Allies in Conflict (New York, 1988)
78. Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (New York, 1979), 376-79, 406-09, 458-63.
79. On de Gaulle's policies as provisional president, see Anton W. DePorte, De Gaulle's Foreign Policy, 1944-1946 (Cambridge, Mass., 1968).
80. Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre: L'unité (Paris, 1956), 97.
81. Philip G. Cerny, The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy (New York, 1980), 3-7, 74-126
82. Jean-Paul Brunet, "Le RPF et l'idee de puissance nationale (1947-1948)," in La puissance française en question (1945-1949), ed. René Girault and Robert Frank (Paris, 1988), 362-84
83. Paul-Marie de La Gorce, Naissance de la France moderne: L'après guerre, 1944-52 (Paris, 1978), 423-68.
84. Richard Kuisel analyzes de Gaulle's anti-Americanism during the Fifth Republic in Kuisel, "Was de Gaulle Anti-American?" Tocqueville Review 13 (1992): 21-32.
85. also Leffler, Preponderance of Power, 230, 277.
86. On neutralist anti-Americanism in France, consult Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, Cal., 1993), 42-46, 139.
87. Christian Purtschet, Rassemblement du peuple français, 116-40
88. Patrick Guiol, L'impasse sociale du gaullisme, 34-37, 61-107
89. Jacques Soustelle, Vingt-huit ans de gaullisme (Paris, 1968), 37-65.
90. See the discussion of the vote in Andrew Shennan, De Gaulle (New York, 1993), 65-66.
91. "De Gaullists Hide Guns, Reds Charge: Leaflet Alleges Seizure and Arrests - de Gaulle's Return to Power Forecast," New York Times, 11 March 1947, 8:3-4
92. "French See Perils in New U.S. Policy: Fear Crisis if Moscow Talks Fail - Ramadier Confirms Seizure of Arms," New York Times, 14 March 1947, 4:8
93. "French Map War on Arms Caches: Minister Admits They Exist for Sale to Highest Bidder - Cites Other Crimes," New York Times, 18 March 1947, 13:3.
94. also, "French Smash Rightist Plot to Overthrow Government: Military Dictatorship Called Purpose of Monarchists, Vichyites, Collaborationists Who Planned Coup for July or August," New York Times, 1 July 1947, 1:2
95. "Paris Air Plot Laid to Former Captain," New York Times, 1 July 1947, 6:8
96. "A Leading General Ousted by France: Larminat, Former de Gaulle Aide, Linked by Paris Press with Rightist Plotters," New York Times, 3 July 1947, 7:2.
97. Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop discuss the Plan Blue in Faligot and Krop, trans. W. D. Hall, La Piscine: The French Secret Service Since 1944, (New York, 1985), 62-64. This book, however, is thinly documented and unreliable.
98. On de Gaulle's followers, see Patrick Façon, La IVe république, 1944-1958: De la libération au 13 Mai (Paris, 1997), 45-61.
99. See, for instance, Caffery to Byrnes, Despatch 4458, Subject: "Political Prospects of the Left Wing Parties," Paris, 13 February 1946, SD 851.00/2-1346, reel 4
100. Caffery to Byrnes, Despatch 4550, Subject: "An Attempt to Evaluate the French Political Scene between Elections and Following General de Gaulle's Resignation," Paris, 25 February 1946, SD 851.00/2-2546, reel 4
101. Elgey, Histoire de la IVe république, 434-41
102. Rioux, Fourth Republic, 122-32.
103. Caffery to Marshall, Paris, 11 April 1947, FRUS, 1947, 3:697-98.
104. Harry S. Truman, "The Truman Doctrine," 12 March 1947, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1947 (Washington, D.C., 1963), 176-80.
105. Leffler, Preponderance of Power, 161-63.
106. Hüser, Frankreichs "doppelte Deutschlandpolitik," 253-54, 257, 264-65.
107. "French Advance German Accords: Agree to Assembly Debate with Three Reservations - de Gaulle Sees Threat," New York Times, 10 June 1948, 11:1
108. Gerbert, Relèvement, 355-57.
109. Central Intelligence Agency, ORE 39-48: France's German Policy, 29 December 1948, PSF, Intelligence File: ORE, 1948 (30-32, 34, 35, 37-39) folder, box 255, PSF Intelligence File, Truman Papers, HSTL;
110. Enclosure - Tab 4, of Lovett (acting secretary of state) to W. Averell Harriman (U.S. special representative to Europe, temporarily at Washington), Washington, 3 December 1948: "Question Raised by Mr. Harriman: Our Policies toward France, Particularly in the Manner in Which Our Influence Can be Exerted Toward the Attainment of Greater Political and Financial Stability," FRUS, 1948, 3:306-08.
111. The network may alternately have been code-named "Rainbow," "Windrose," or "M-48." Alexander Smoltczyk, "'Gladio' in Paris: Résistance im Notfall, Taz, 14 November 1990.
112. "Secret Western Spy Network Existed," International Herald Tribune, 10-11 November 1990, 2
113. "The Sword's Other Edge," Economist, 15 December 1990, 25-26.
114. William Colby, Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York, 1987), 81-82.
115. U.S. Naval Attaché (hereafter ALUSNA) to State-Army-Navy-Air Force Coordinating Committee (hereafter SANA), Joint WEEKA Report 46, Paris, 17 November 1950, SD2 751.00 (W)/17-350, reel 5.
116. ALUSNA to SANA, Joint WEEKA Report 39, Paris, 29 September 1950, SD2 751.00 (W)/9-2950, reel 5
117. Arthur E. Rowse, "Gladio: The Secret U.S. War to Subvert Italian Democracy," Covert Action Quarterly 49 (summer 1994): 23.
118. See Federico Romero, trans. Harvey Fergusson II, The United States and the European Trade Union Movement, 1944-1951 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992).
119. ALUSNA to SANA, Joint WEEKA Report 38, Paris, 22 September 1950, SD2 751.00 (W)/9-2250, reel 5.
120. Mario Del Pero, "The United States and 'Psychological Warfare' in Italy, 1948-1955," Journal of American History 87 (March 2001): 1313, 1324
121. Alfred W. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1991), 51-63.
122. Senato della Repubblica, Camera dei Deputati, XII Legislatura, Commissione Parlamentare d'Inchiesta sul Terrorismo in Italia e sulle Cause della Mancata Individuazione dei Responsabili della Stragi (Commissione Stragi), Il Terrorismo, le Stragi ed il Contesto Storico-Politico: Proposta di Relazione, Capitolo I, "Il Quadro Storico-Politico nel Dopoguerra" (1994), 10-13;
123. online version at http://www.clarence.com/memoria/stragi/.
124. Colby, Honorable Men, 82-83.
125. R. Faenza and M. Fini, Gli Americani in Italia (Milan, 1976), 320.
126. Deborah Kisatsky, "Containment, Co-optation, Cooperation: The United States and the European Right, 1945-1955" (Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 2001), 109-81, 225-79
127. Leo A. Müller, Gladio: Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges: Der Nato-Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorläufer (Reinbek-bei-Hamburg, 1991)
128. Christian Stifter, Die Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs: Die geheime Remilitarisierung der westlichen Besatzungszonen, 1945-1955 (Innsbruck, 1997), 127-28
129. John Foster LeMay, "Belgien," Zoom (April-May 1996);
130. online version at http://zoom.mediaweb.at/zoom-4596/belgien.html.
131. Charles Bohlen (State Department counselor), Memorandum: "Possible Developments of Prospective French Political Crisis and Its Effect on U.S. Foreign Policy," 28 June 1947, SD 851.00/6-2847, reel 6;
132. Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War (New York, 1988).