Training, morale and modern war

Journal of Contemporary History

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2006, Pages

  Strachan, Hew ^a,b  

^a ALL SOULS COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34247218357     PISSN: 00220094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0022009406062054     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Christoph Jahr, Gewöhnliche Soldaten. Desertion und Deserteure im deutschen und britischen Heer 1914-1918 (Göttingen 1998);
2. Wilhelm Deist, 'Der militärische Zusammenbruch des Kaiserreichs: zur Realität der "Dolchstosslegende"' in Ursula Büttner (ed.), Das Unrechtsregime. Internationale Forschung über den Nationalsozialismus (Hamburg 1986), 1.
3. The first version of this article appeared as 'Ausbildung, Kampfgeist und die zwei Weltkriege' in Bruno Thoss and Hans-Erich Volkmann (eds), Erster Weltkrieg/Zweiter Weltkrieg. Ein Vergleich (Paderborn 2002); this revised version, which says less about Germany and more about the United States since 1945, appears with the permission of the publishers, Ferdinand Schnöningh.
4. F.H. Hinsley, British Intelligence in the Second World War. Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (5 vols, London 1979-90), 3/1, 64-5;
5. 3/2, 21, 24, 27, 31, 365.
6. S.A. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier (New York 1965; 1st edn, Princeton, NJ 1949), 3 vols;
7. S.L.A. Marshall, Men against Fire. The Problem of Battle Command in Future War (New York 1966; 1st edn 1947);
8. for a corrective, see Anthony Kellett, Combat Motivation. The Behavior of Soldiers in Battle (Boston, MA 1982), 97.
9. On the utilitarian origins of the comradeship of the small group in the US army in the second world war, see J. Glenn Gray, The Warriors. Reflections on Men in Battle (New York 1970).
10. Edward A. Shils and Morris Janowitz, 'Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 280-315.
11. John Lynn, Bayonets of the Republic. Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791-4 (Urbana, IL 1984), 30-7, 163-4.
12. Hew Strachan, 'The Morale of the German Army, 1917-18' in Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (eds), Facing Armageddon. The First World War Experienced (Barnsley 1996), 388.
13. Omer Bartov, Hitler's Army. Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (Oxford 1991), 5, 29-45.
14. Sam C. Sarkesian (ed.), Combat Effectiveness. Cohesion, Stress, and the Volunteer Military (Beverly Hills, CA 1980), 259.
15. Martin van Creveld, Fighting Power. German and US Army Performance 1939-1945 (London 1983), 75.
16. Marshall, Men against Fire, op. cit., 129.
17. Tony Ashworth, Trench Warfare 1914-1918. The Live and Let Live System (London 1980).
18. Kellett, Combat Motivation, op. cit., 102-3, quoting R.W. Little.
19. Sarkesian, Combat Effectiveness, op. cit., 257. Emphasis in the original.
20. Bartov, Hitler's Army, op. cit., 4, 106-78;
21. Stephen G. Fritz, '"We are trying . . . to change the face of the world". Ideology and Motivation in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front. The View from Below', Journal of Military History, 60 (1996), 683-710.
22. Hew Strachan, The First World War, 1, To Arms (Oxford 2001), 1114-39.
23. S.P. Mackenzie, Politics and Military Morale. Current Affairs and Citizenship Education in the British Army, 1914-1950 (Oxford 1992);
24. David French, Raising Churchill's Army. The British Army and the War against Germany, 1919-1945 (Oxford 2000), 126, 133.
25. The essays by Jürgen Förster and Theo Schulte in Paul Addison and Angus Calder (eds), Time to Kill. The Soldier's Experience of War in the West 1939-1945 (London 1997), broadly speaking support Bartov's position.
26. E.g. Mackenzie, Politics and Military Morale, op. cit., 109.
27. William Slim, Defeat into Victory (London 1956), 182;
28. Kellett, Combat Motivation, op. cit., 327.
29. Hew Strachan, 'The Soldier's Experience in Two World Wars. Some Historiographical Comparisons' in Addison and Calder, Time to Kill, op. cit., 374-5.
30. Manfred Messerschmidt, 'Deutsche Militärgerichtsbarkeit im Zweiten Weltkrieg' in Hans-Jochen Vogel, Helmut Simon and Adalbert Podlech (eds), Die Freiheit des Anderen (Baden-Baden 1981);
31. Manfred Messerschmidt and Fritz Wüllner, Die Wehrmachtjustiz im Dienst des Nationalsozialismus. Zerstörung einer Legende (Baden-Baden 1987).
32. John Erickson, 'Red Army Battlefield Performance 1941-45. The System and the Soldier' in Addison and Calder, Time to Kill, op. cit., 244.
33. Saul David, Mutiny at Salerno. An Injustice Exposed (London 1995).
34. French, Raising Churchill's Army, op. cit., 138, 242-3.
35. Marshall, Men against Fire, op. cit., 22.
36. Shelford Bidwell, Modern Warfare. A Study of Men, Weapons and Theories (London 1973), 130.
37. Hugh McManners, The Scars of War (London 1994; first published 1993), 53.
38. Dave Grossman, On Killing. The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston, MA 1995), 44.
39. McManners, The Scars of War, op. cit., 124.
40. Marshall, Men against Fire, op. cit., 70;
41. see also Roger Spiller, 'S.L.A. Marshall and the Ratio of Fire', Journal of the Royal United Services Institute, 133, 4 (1988), 63-71.
42. Bidwell, Modern Warfare, op. cit., 126.
43. Ardant du Picq, Etudes sur le combat. Combat antique et combat moderne (Paris 1903), 101.
44. J.F.C. Fuller, Training Soldiers for War (London 1914), 19.
45. Martin Samuels, Doctrine and Dogma. German and British Infantry Tactics in the First World War (Westport, CT 1992), 99.
46. Bernd F. Schulte, Die deutsche Armee 1900-1914. Zwischen Beharren und Verändern (Dusseldorf 1977);
47. Schulte, Europäische Krise und Erster Weltkrieg. Beitrage zur Militärpolitik des Kaiserreichs 1871-1914 (Frankfurt am Main 1983), 295-318.
48. Douglas Porch, The March to the Marne. The French Army 1871-1914 (Cambridge 1981), 200.
49. Nicolas Offenstadt, Les fusillés de la grande guerre et la mémoire collective (1914-1999) (Paris 1999), 14;
50. on the general background to the military justice system and the French mutinies of 1917, see Guy Pedroncini, Les mutineries de 1917 (Paris 1967), esp. 13-20.
51. Victor Huguet, Britain and the War. A French Indictment (London 1928), 3.
52. Jahr, Gewöhnliche Soldaten, op. cit., 169-72.
53. Peter T. Scott, 'Dishonoured'. The 'Colonels' Surrender' at St Quentin, the Retreat from Mons, August 1914 (London 1994).
54. Samuels, Doctrine and Dogma, op. cit., 19.
55. R.H. Lutz (ed.), Documents of the German Revolution. Fall of the German Empire 1914-1918 (Stanford, CA 1932), 1, 621;
56. for what follows, see Hew Strachan, 'The Morale of the German Army'
57. Ernst Jünger, Storm of Steel (London 1930), 240, 242;
58. Herbert Sulzbach, With the German Guns. Four Years on the Western Front 1914-1918 (London 1973), 182.
59. Bill Rawling, Surviving Trench Warfare. Technology and the Canadian Corps, 1914-1918 (Toronto 1992), 130; see also 90, 100.
60. G.D. Sheffield, 'Officer-man Relations, Morale and Discipline in the British Army, 1902-22', London University PhD, 1994, 90.
61. James Corum, The Roots of Blitzkrieg. Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform (Lawrence, KS 1992), 183-6.
62. Robert Citino, The Path to Blitkrieg. Doctrine and Training in the German Army 1920-1939 (Boulder, CO 1999), 53.
63. Bernhard Kroener, 'The Manpower Resources of the Third Reich in the Area of Conflict between Wehrmacht, Bureaucracy, and War Economy, 1939-42' in Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt, Germany and the Second World War, 5/2 (Oxford 2000), 941-3.
64. 'Weisung für die Aufgaben der Ostheeres im Winter 1941-42' in P.E. Schramm (ed.), Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (4 vols, Frankfurt am Main 1961-79), 1, 1080-1.
65. Stephen G. Fritz, Frontsoldaten. The German Soldier in World War II (Lexington, KY 1995), 11.
66. Robert H. Ahrenfeldt, Psychiatry in the British Army in the Second World War (London 1958), 198.
67. Field Marshal Earl Wavell, The Good Soldier (London 1948), 96, 99.
68. French, Raising Churchill's Army, op. cit., 55, 57-9, 199.
69. Bidwell, Modern Warfare, op. cit., 130.
70. Ahrenfeldt, Psychiatry, op. cit., 204-5.
71. Tim Harrison Place, Military Training in the British Army, 1940-44 (London 2000), 40-62;
72. Tim Harrison Place, 'Lionel Wigram, Battle Drill and the British Army in the Second World War', War in History, 7 (2000), 442-62;
73. French, Raising Churchill's Army, op. cit., 136;
74. Jeremy Crang, The British Army and the People's War 1939-1945 (Manchester 2000), 79-84. I am most grateful for Dr Crang's advice on this topic.
75. Jary quoted in McManners, Scars of War, op. cit., 159.
76. Stephen Brooks (ed.), Montgomery and the Eighth Army (London 1991), 8, 41-3.
77. Slim, Defeat into Victory, op. cit., 191.
78. Penguin Special, How the Jap Army Fights (Harmondsworth 1943), 92-4, 114-18.
79. Stouffer, American Soldier, op. cit., 2, 220.
80. Robert A. Palmer, Bell I. Wiley and William R. Keast, The United States Army in World War II. Army Ground Forces. The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops (Washington, DC 1948), 387.
81. Stouffer, American Soldier, op. cit., 2, 76;
82. Gerald F. Linderman, The World within War. America's Combat Experience in World War II (Cambridge, MA 1997), 186.
83. Stouffer, American Soldier, op. cit., 2, 217.
84. Grossman, On Killing, op. cit., xiv-xv, 35.
85. Sarkesian, Combat Effectiveness, op. cit., 76-83, 176-81.
86. McManners, Scars of War, op. cit., 74.
87. Paul R. Bleda and Robert H. Sulzen, 'The Effects of Simulated Infantry Combat Training on Motivation and Satisfaction', Armed Forces and Society, 6 (1980), 202-14.