Customs of governance: Colonialism and democracy in twentieth century India

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 441-470

  Chandavarkar, Rajinarayan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; DEMOCRACY; ELECTRICITY; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

ASIA; DELHI; EURASIA; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA;

EID: 34247196700     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: 14698099     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X06002472     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Indian Express, 17 April 2000.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Indeed, according to Abhay Mehta, the Delhi Electricity and Supply Undertaking, later reconstituted as the DVB, was 'one of the most corrupt and bankrupt organizations in the country.' Abhay Mehta, Power Play: A Study of the Enron Project (Mumbai, 2000), p. 10.
5. International Energy Agency, Electricty in India: Providing Power for the Millions (OECD/IEA, 2002), pp. 31-36.
6. According to the Union Minister for Power, Mr. Sushilkumar Shinde, 31.5 per cent of electricity supply is lost in transmission and distribution (compared to 7 per cent in China, 18 per cent each in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, 20 per cent in Myanmar, 21 per cent in Nepal and 26 per cent in Pakistan. He attributed these losses to 'low metering, billing and collection [in] efficiency, meter tampering and power theft.' Hindustan Times, 23 February 2006.
7. For a detailed account of the Enron project, see Mehta, Power Play; Human Rights Watch, The Enron Corporation: Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Violations (London, 1999).
8. Selig Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton, 1960)
9. A. Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge, 1990).
10. India has often performed poorly in the Corruption Perception index produced by Transparency International. For the Corruption Perception Index for 2005, see http://ww1.transparency.org/cpi/2005/ 2005.10.18.cpi.en.html#cpi.
11. See also Aqil Shah, 'South Asia' in Global Corruption Report, 2001, Transparency International, edited by R. Hodess, J. Banfield and T. Wolfe (Berlin 2001), pp. 39-52.
12. N. Vittal, 'Combatting Corruption' Seminar, no. 485, (January 2000).
13. See also, N. K. Singh, The Politics of Crime and Corruption: A Former CBI Officer Speaks (New Delhi, 1999)
14. S. Viswanathan and H. Sethi, Foul Play: Chronicles of Corruption, 1947-97 (New Delhi, 1998)
15. S. Guhan and S. Paul (eds.), Corruption in India: Agenda for Action (New Delhi, 1997).
16. Hindustan Times, 9 November 1997. The IAS Officers' Association has held a similar poll in several subsequent years. Two officers who placed by the 1997 poll among the three most corrupt officers in the service in 1997 eventually became Chief Secretary, or the head of the civil service in the province, in the following decade and appear to have attempted to prevent the conduct of a similar poll in 2005.
17. Tribune, 3 April 2005
18. Mid-Day, 27 March 2005.
19. A. Desai (ed.), The Violation of Democratic Rights in India (Bombay, 1986)
20. Amnesty International, India: Torture, Rape and Deaths in Custody (London, 1992)
21. Ujjwal K. Singh, Political Prisoners in India (Delhi, 1998).
22. Report of the Srikrishna Commission Appointed for Inquiry into the Riots at Mumbai during December 1992 - January 1993 and the 12 March 1993 Bomb Blasts (Bombay, n.d. [1998?])
23. T. B. Hansen, 'Governance and Myths of the State in Mumbai', in C. J. Fuller and Veronique Benei (eds.), The Everyday State and Society in Modern India (London, 2001), pp. 31-67
24. P. Brass, Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence (Princeton, 1997), pp. 51-57, and passim;
25. Vibhuti Narain Rai, 'An Open Letter to My Fellow Police Officers', in S. Varadarajan (ed.), Gujarat: The Making of a Tragedy (New Delhi, 2003), pp. 211-13
26. and T. Setalvad, 'When Guardians Betray: The Role of the Police', in Ibid., pp. 177-210.
27. U. Baxi, The Crisis of the Indian Legal System (New Delhi, 1982)
28. Pratap Bhanu Mehta, 'India's Judiciary: The Promise of Uncertainty', in D. Kapoor and P. B. Mehta (eds.), Public Institutions in India: Performance and Design (New Delhi, 2005), pp. 158-93.
29. The Chief Justice of India, Y. K. Sabharwal, offered this estimate when he took office in October 2005. See The Tribune, 21 October 2005. This figure is widely employed. However, it is not clear that these estimates include the backlog in the lowest courts.
30. See also U. Ramanathan, 'Crime and Punishment', Seminar, no. 557, January 2006.
31. From a large literature, see, for instance, P. van der Veer, Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India (Berkeley & Los Angeles, 1994)
32. T. B. Hansen, The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India (Princeton, 1999)
33. A. Basu and A. Kohli (eds.), Community Conflicts and the Syaye in India (Delhi, 1998)
34. O. Shani, 'The Rise of Hindu Nationalism in India: A Case Study of Ahmedabad in the 1980s', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 39, part 4 (2005), pp. 861-96.
35. D. Gupta, 'The Communalising of the Punjab, 1980-1985', Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 20, no. 28 (13 July 1985), pp. 1185-1190
36. P. Brass, 'The Punjab Crisis and the Unity of India', in Kohli (ed.), India's Democrary, pp. 169-213
37. P. Wallace, 'Religious and Ethnic Politics: Political Mobilization in Punjab', in F. Frankel and M. S. A. Rao (eds.), Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, vol. 2 (Delhi, 1990), pp. 416-81
38. Gurharpal Singh, 'Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order and Legitimacy', Asian Survey, vol. 36, no. 4 (1994), pp. 410-21
39. Gurhapal Singh, Ethnic Conflict in India: A Case-Study of Punjab (Basingstoke, 2000).
40. On Assam, see J. Das Gupta, 'Ethnicity, Democracy and Development in India: Assam in a General Perspective', in Kohli (ed.), India's Democracy, pp. 144-68
41. S. Baruah, India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality (Delhi, 1999)
42. and S. Baruah, Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India (Delhi, 2005)
43. on Kashmir, see S. Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge, 1999)
44. B. Puri, Kashmir: Towards Insurgency (Delhi, 1993)
45. S. Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi, 1997).
46. T. B. Hansen, Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay (Princeton, 2001)
47. Varadarajan (ed.), Gujarat.
48. R. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State, 1850-1950 (Cambridge, 1998), chapter 5.
49. As Shekhar Naphade, a senior counsel in the Bombay High Court, declared, 'Lawlessness is rampant nowadays. Few believe in following the rule of law', Times of India, 29 March 2000.
50. Indeed, as the noted economist, D. R. Gadgil, observed in 1950, 'Politicians as well as the ordinary man in the street allege today the average administrator in India is neither efficient nor honest. It is, of course, generally agreed that our traders have little moral sense and that few among the public at large exhibit the strength of character necessary in a regime of controls'. Curiously, politicians in Gadgil's narration made the allegations rather than becoming the object of them. Indeed, traders probably had as much moral sense in 1950 as 'politicians' and 'the ordinary man' allowed them to retain. D. R. Gadgil, 'Wartime Controls and Peacetime Ends' in Government of India, Ministry of Labour, Problems of Indian Labur: A Symposium (Simla, 1950), p. 5.
51. R. Chandavarkar, 'Workers' Politics and the Mill Districts in Bombay Between the Wars', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 15, part 3 (1981), pp. 603-48
52. N. Adarkar and M. Menon, One Hundred Voices, One Hundred Years
53. N. Gooptu, The Politics of the Urban Poor in Early Twentieth Century India (Cambridge, 2001).
54. The classic statement is by P. Bardhan, The Political Economy of Development in India (Oxford, 1984).
55. C. J. Fuller and V. Benei (eds.), The Evegday State and Society in Modern India (London,2001)
56. A. Gupta, 'Blurred Boundaries: The Discourse of Corruption, the Culture of Politics and the Imagined State', American Ethnologist, no. 22 (1995), pp. 375-402
57. J- Parry, "'The Crisis of Corruption" and "the Idea of India": A Worm's Eye View', in I. Pardo (ed.), The Morals of Legitimacy (Oxford, 2000), pp. 27-55
58. S. Corbridge et al., Seeing the State: Governance and Governmentaliy in India (Cambridge, 2005).
59. P. Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (Delhi, 2004).
60. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapters 1 & 9.
61. A. Seal, 'Imperialism and Nationalism in India', in J. Gallagher, G. Johnson and A. Seal (eds.), Locality, Province and Nation: Indian Politics, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, 1973), pp. 1-15
62. R. Robinson, 'Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration', in R. Owen and R. Sutcliffe (eds.), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London, 1972), pp. 117-42
63. C. A. Bayly, 'Local Control in Indian Towns - the Case of Allahabad, 1880-1920', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 5, no. 4 (1971), pp. 289-311
64. D. Washbrook, The Emergence of Provincial Politics: Madras Presidency, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, 1976), especially, chapter 3
65. A. Yang, The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India: Saran District, 1793-1920 (Delhi, 1989).
66. D. Arnold, Police Power and Colonial Rule: Madras, 1859-1947 (Delhi, 1986)
67. P. Robb, 'The Ordering of Rural India: The Policing of Nineteenth Century Bengal and Bihar', in D. M. Anderson and D. Killingray (eds.), Policing the Empire: Government, Authoriy and Control, 1830-1940 (Manchester, 1991), p. 126-50
68. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapter 6.
69. This argument is elaborated in Chandavarkar, Imperial Politics and Popular Politics.
70. W. W. Hunter, Bombay, 1885 to 1890: A Study in Indian Administration (London, 1892)
71. E. Cox, Police and Crime in India (London, 1910)
72. J. C. Curry, The Indian Police (London, 1932)
73. Annual Reports on the Police in the Town and Island of Bombay, 1884-1912 (1885-1913)
74. Annual Reports on the Police in the Ciy of Bombay, 1913-47 (Bombay, 1914-1948).
75. Cox, Police and Crime in India, pp. 254, 258 & 256.
76. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapter 6.
77. S. Nigam,'Disciplining and Policing the Criminals by Birth: Parts I & 2', Indian Economic and Social History Review [henceforth, IESHR], vol. 27, no. 2 (1990), pp. 131-164,
78. and IESHR, vol. 27, no. 3 (1990), pp. 257-87
79. R. Singha, 'Providential Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation', MAS, vol. 27, no. 1 (1993), pp. 83-146
80. A. Yang (ed.), Crime and Criminality in British India (Tucson, Ariz., 1985)
81. M. Radhakrishna, Dishonoured by History: "Criminal tribes" and British Colonial Policy (Hyderabad, 2001)
82. S. Freitag, 'Crime in the Social Order of Colonial North India', MAS vol. 25, no. 2 (1991), pp. 227-61.
83. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics.
84. C. J. Baker, An Indian Rural Economy: The Tamil Nadu Countryside, 1880-1950 (Oxford, 1984)
85. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapters 3, 5 & 6
86. R. Chandavarkar, The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business Strategies and the Working Classes in Bombay, 1900-1940 (Cambridge, 1994), chapter 9
87. Gooptu, The Politics of the Urban Poor
88. Subho Basu, Does Class Matter? Colonial Capital and Workers' Resistance in Bengal, 1890-1937 (Delhi, 2004).
89. Report of the Indian Statutory Commission, vol. 1, Survey (London, 1930), p. 95.
90. See, for instance, Report of the Indian Factory Labour Commission, 1908, 2 vols. (Simla, 1908)
91. Report of the Royal Commission on Labour in India (London, 1931)
92. G. M. Broughton, Labour in Indian Industries (London, 1924)
93. P. S. Lokanathan, Industrial Organization in India (London, 1935).
94. These assumptions and hypotheses have sometimes been offered as an explanation for workers' resistance and their propensity for violence by more recent writers. See, for instance, D. Arnold, 'Industrial Violence in Colonial India', Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 22, no. 2 (1980), pp. 234-55
95. D. Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working Class History, 1890-1940 (Delhi, 1989), especially chapter 5
96. V. Das, 'Introduction: Communities, Riots and Survivors: The South Asian Experience', in V. Das (ed.), Mirrors of Violence: Communities, Riots and Survivors in South Asia (Delhi, 1990).
97. Report of the Indian Factory Labour Commission, 1908, vol. 1
98. Report of the RCLI; Annual Report of the Bombay Millowners'Association, 1918, p. xii.
99. See, for instance, Report of the Committee Appointed by the Government of India to Investigate the Disturbances in the Punjab etc., Parliamentary Papers [henceforth, PP], 1920, vol. XIV, Cmd. 681
100. Government of Bombay [henceforth GOB], Home (Special) File 750 (26) of 1930, Maharashtra State Archives [henceforth, MSA]
101. Secretary, GOB, Home to Secretary, Government of India [henceforth, GOI], rmy, 12 January 1921, in Bombay Confidential Proceedings, January 1921, vol. 62, Oriental and India Office Collection [OIOC]
102. Curry, The Indian Police, pp. 86, 99.
103. See, Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapters 5 & 6.
104. For an account, however a-historical, of the identification of popular politics with disease, contagion, irrationality, and conspiracy and also its description in terms of the speed and suddenness of its 'eruption', see Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in India (Delhi, 1983), pp. 221-26.
105. Curry, The Indian Police, p. 99.
106. Chandavarkar, Imperial Power and Popular Politics, chapter 6.
107. Disturbances in the Punjab, Statement by Brigadier-General R. H. Dyer, PP, 1920, vol. XXXIV, Cmd- 771
108. D. Sayer, 'British Reactions to the Amritsar Massacre, 1919-1920', Past and Present, no. 131 (May 1991), pp. 130-64.
109. Curry, The Indian Police p. 99.
110. Baxi, The Crisis of the Indian Legal System
111. D. H. Bayley, The Police and Political Development in India (Princeton, 1969)
112. D. H. Bayley, 'The Police and Political Order in India', Asian Survey vol. 23, no. 4 (1983), pp. 484-496
113. J. Ribeiro, Bullet for Bullet: My Life as a Police Officer (New Delhi, 1998)
114. Verma, in Kapur and Mehta (eds.), Public Institutions in India: Performance and Design.
115. Jan Breman, 'Silencing the Voice of Agricultural Labourers in South Gujarat', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 33, no. (1999), pp. 1-22
116. O. Mendelsohn and M. Vicziany, The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India (Cambridge, 1998)
117. Human Rights Watch, Broken People: Caste Violence Against India's Untouchables (New York, 1999).
118. On the political assertion of dalits, Y. Yadav, 'Understanding the Second Democratic Upsurge: Trends of Bahujan Participation in Electoral Politics in the 1990s', in F. Frankel, Z. Hasan, R. Bhargava and B. Arora (eds.), Transforming India: Social and Political Dynamics of Democracy (Delhi, 2000).
119. See Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women's Rights and Feminism in India, 1800-1990 (London, 1993)
120. Subhadra Butalia. The Gift of a Daughter: Encounters with Victims of Dowry (Delhi, 2002)
121. Urvashi Butalia, 'Confrontation and Negotiation: The Women's Movement's Responses to Violence Against Women', in K. Kapadia (ed.), The Violence of Development: The Politics of Identiy, Gender and Social Inequalities in India (New Delhi, 2002), pp. 207-34
122. Nisha Srivastava, 'Multiple Dimensions of Violence Against Rural Women in Uttar Pradesh: Macro and Micro Realities', in Ibid., pp. 235-91.
123. See also V. Oldenburg, Dowry Murder: The Imperial Origins of a Cultural Crime (Delhi, 2002).
124. Butalia, The Gift of a Daughter. On the legislative changes,
125. see Flavia Agnes, 'Protecting Women Against Violence? Review of a Decade of Legislation, 1980-1989', Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 27, no. 17 (5 April 1992), pp. ws19-ws32
126. Kumar, The History of Doing, pp. 1 15-26
127. and Ratna Kapur and Brenda Crossman, Subversive Sites: Feminist Engagements with Law in India (New Delhi, 1996). For instance, the Indian Penal Code was amended to make 'cruelty' and harassment for dowry a cognizable offence, punishable by imprisonment. The Criminal procedure code was amended to make a post-mortem compulsory in the case of married women who had died within seven years of marriage. The Indian Evidence Act was amended to provide that in the event of a woman committing suicide within seven years of the date of her marriage, evidence that her husband or her family had subjected her to cruelty or harassed her for dowry was sufficient to allow the court to presume that they had abetted her suicide.
128. See also Subhadra Butalia, The Gift of a Daughter
129. Urvashi Butalia, 'Confrontation and Negotiation'pp. 207-34
130. Nisha Srivastava, 'Multiple Dimensions of Violence Against Rural Women in Uttar Pradesh: Macro and Micro Realities' in Ibid., pp. 235-91.
131. The Hindu, 24 August 2003
132. the figures for the mid 1990s are from National Crime Research Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India 'Crimes in India' cited in Srivastava, 'Multiple Dimensions of Violence', pp. 242-49.
133. Parvathi Menon, '"Dowry Deaths" in Bangalore', Frontline vol. 16, no. 17 (14-27 August 1999).
134. In 1999, the courts took six to seven years on average to dispose of cases of dowry violence in Bangalore. See Menon, '"Dowry Deaths" in Bangalore'. Similarly, according to the Government of India's own figures, more than a quarter of dowry deaths in 1998 were 'pending investigation' by the police while 85 per cent of cases that had reached the courts were 'pending trial'. 'Crimes in India, 1998' National crime research Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, cited by Srivastava, 'Multiple Dimensions of Violence', pp. 245-46.
135. Tejdeep Kaur Menon, 'Crime Against Women: Violence Within and Without', The Hindu, 1 September 2002.
136. Domestic Violence in India: A Summary Report of a Multi-Site Household Survey, International Center for Research on Women, Washington D.C., 2000)
137. Times of India, 24 February 2000.
138. New York Times, 26 December 2000
139. Butalia, The Gift of a Daughter
140. Kumar, A History of Doing
141. Oldenburg, Dowry Murder.
142. P. C. Mahalanobis, Talks on Planning (New York, 1961)
143. A. H. Hanson, The Process of Planning (Oxford, 1966)
144. S. Chakravathy, Development Planning: The Indian Experience (New Delhi, 1987)
145. P. Chatterjee, 'Development Planning and the Indian State', in T.J. Byres (ed.), The State, Development Planning and Liberalisation in India (Delhi, 1998), pp. 82-103
146. D. Washbrook, 'The Rhetoric of Democracy and Development in Late Colonial India', in S. Bose and A. Jalal (eds.), Nationalism, Democracy and Development: State and Politics in India (Delhi, 1997), pp. 36-49
147. V. Chibber, Locked in Place: State-Building and Late Industrialization in India (Princeton, 2003).
148. Bayley, The Police and Political Development
149. Bayley, 'The Police and Political Order'
150. P. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence, The New Cambridge History of India, vol. IV, part 1 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 54-9.
151. D. Hiro, Inside India Today (London, 1978), pp. 205, 194-205
152. K. Mathur, 'The State and the Use of Coercive Power in India', Asian Survey, vol. 32, no. 4 (1992), pp. 337-49.
153. S. P. Cohen 'The Military', in H. Hart (ed.), Indira Gandhi's India: A Political System Reappraised (Boulder Co., 1976), pp. 207-40
154. Stephen P. Cohen, 'The Military and Indian Democracy', in A. Kohli (ed.), India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations (Princeton, 1988), pp. 99-143
155. Mathur, 'The State and the Use of Coercive Power', pp. 345-46.
156. Sir Ivor Jennings, Some Characteristics of the Indian Constitution: Being Lectures Given in the University of Madras During March 1952 Under the Sir Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyer Shashtiabdapoorthi Endowment (London, 1953)
157. G. Austin, The Indian Constitution: The Cornerstone of a Nation (Oxford, 1966)
158. Washbrook, 'The Rhetoric of Democracy and Development'.
159. Significantly, the architects of the state in Pakistan, especially its generals, showed a similar fondness for 'reserved powers' and 'dyarchy'. See Mohammed Waseem, Politics and the State in Pakistan (Islamabad, 1994)
160. and 'Constitutionalism in Pakistan: The changing patterns of dyarchy', unpublished paper presented to the conference on Pakistan: The State, Citizenship and Religion, Centre of South Asian Studies, Cambridge, July 2005.
161. R. Kumar (ed.), Essays on Gandhian Politics: The Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).
162. A. Desai (ed.), The Violation of Democratic Rights in India (Bombay, 1986)
163. Mathur, 'The State and the Use of Coercive Power in India', pp. 340-43
164. Amnesty International, India: Torture, Rape and Deaths in Custody (London, 1992).
165. Compare, for instance, Julio Ribeiro's enunciation of 'the principles of mob control' with the nostrums of J. C. Curry, quoted above.
166. See footnote 17 above.
167. On Malabar, see K. N. Panikkar, Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar, 1836-1921 (Delhi, 1989), pp. 139-90
168. and S. F. Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mapillas of Malabar, 1498-1922 (Oxford, 1980), pp. 179-218
169. on Bengal, see Government of India, Terrorism in India, 1917-1936 (Simla, 1937)
170. D. Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940 (London, 1994), pp. 223-25
171. T. Sarkar, Bengal, 1928-1934: The Politics of Protest (Delhi, 1987)
172. on the Quit India Movement, see GOI, Home (Poll), File 3/15/43
173. GOI, Home (Poll), File 3/52/43, National Archives of India
174. F. Hutchins, India's Revolution: Gandhi and the Quit India Movement (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), especially, chapters 7 and 9
175. G. Pandey (ed.), The Indian Nation in 1942 (Calcutta, 1988).
176. D. Butler, A. Lahiri and P. Roy, India Decides: Elections, 1952-1991 (New Delhi, 1991), pp. 7-11
177. R. Roy and P. Wallace (eds.), Indian Politics and the 1998 Election: Regionalism, Hindutva and State Politics (New Delhi, 1999)
178. P. Wallace and R. Roy (eds.), India's 1999 Elections and Twentieth Century Politics (New Delhi, 2003)
179. and especially, the collection of articles on 'Electoral Politics in India, 1998-99', in Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 34, nos. 34 and 35 (21 August-3 September 1999)
180. and on the 2004 election, the collection in Economic and Political Weekly, vol. no. 39 (18 December 2004).
181. Yadav 'Understanding the Second Democratic Upsurge'.
182. P. Brass, 'National Power and Local Politics in India: A Twenty Year Perspective', in Modern Asian Studies, vol. 18, no. 1 (February 1984), pp. 89-118.
183. On the political and electoral expression of the rivalries between dadas in Bombay, see the testimony of Govind Phansekar in N. Adarkar and M. Menon (eds.), A Hundred Years, A Hundred Voices: The Millworkers of Girangaon: An Oral History (Calcutta, 2004), pp. 290-303.
184. V. Das, 'The Spatialization of Violence: Case Study of a Communal Riot', in K. Basu and S. Subrahamanyam (eds.), Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India's Secular Identity (New Delhi, 1996), pp. 157-203.
185. Times of India, 17 February 1998.
186. D.C. Potter, India's Political Administrators, 1919-1983 (Oxford, 1986)
187. C. Dewey, Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service (London, 1993)
188. D. Gilmour, Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (London, 2006).
189. Potter, India's Political Administrators
190. B. B. Misra, Government and Bureaucracy in India, 1947-1976 (Delhi, 1986)
191. S. Goyal, 'Social Background of Officers in the Indian Administrative Service', in F. Frankel and M. S. A. Rao (eds.), Dominance and State Power: Decline of a Social Order, vol. 1 (Delhi, 1989), Appendix II, pp. 425-33.
192. R. Wade, 'The Market for Public Office: Why the Indian State is Not Better at Development', World Development, vol. 13, no. 4 (1985), pp. 467-97.
193. However, calculations about which of the public services will yield the most revenue in the form of bribes has sometimes acted to balance old considerations of status.
194. B. P. R. Vithal, 'Evolving Trends in the Bureaucracy', in P. Chatterjee (ed.), State and Politics in India (Delhi, 1997), p. 212.
195. The question of the transfer of civil servants is widely and regularly reported in the Indian press. For a discussion of these issues before the political parties fragmented at the centre, see Wade, 'The Market for Public Office'.
196. Vithal, 'Evolving Trends', p. 217.
197. Hindustan Times, 27 September 1991.
198. On the relations between politicians and the local police, see Brass, Theft of an Idol, pp. 51-7
199. and Hansen, 'Governance and Myths of the State'.
200. Hindustan Times, 26 October 1986. See National Police Commission quoted in Amnesty.