What carnivore biologists can learn from bugs, birds, and beavers: A review of spatial theories

Canadian Journal of Zoology

Volumn 84, Issue 12, 2006, Pages 1703-1711

  Young, Julie K ^a,c   Shivik, John A ^a,b  

^a UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NATIONAL WILDLIFE RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

^c ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIRDS; ECOLOGY; FISHERIES; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; TAXONOMIES;

BEAVERS; CARNIVORE RESEARCH; SPATIAL ECOLOGY; ZOOLOGY;

BIODIVERSITY;

BIRD; CARNIVORE; CONSPECIFIC; INVERTEBRATE; RODENT; SPACE USE; SPATIAL ANALYSIS; TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM; TERRITORY; THEORETICAL STUDY;

AVES; CASTORIDAE; INVERTEBRATA;

EID: 34247157907     PISSN: 00084301     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/Z06-178     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Adams, E.S. 1998. Territory size and shape in fire ants: a model based on neighborhood interactions. Ecology, 79: 1125-1134. doi:10.2307/176731.
2. Alatalo, R.V., Lundberg, A., and Bjorklund, M. 1982. Can the song of male birds attract other males? An experiment with the pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca. Bird Behav. 4: 42-45.
3. Amarasekare, P. 2000. Spatial dynamics in a host-multiparasitoid community. J. Anim. Ecol. 69: 201-213. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2000. 00378.x.
4. Anderson, A.R.A., Young, I.M., Sleeman, B.D., Griffiths, B.S., and Robertson, W.M. 1997. Nematode movement along a chemical gradient in a structurally heterogeneous environment: 1. Experiment. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 20: 157-163.
5. Austin, D., Bowen, W.D., and McMillan, J.I. 2004. Intraspecific variation in movement patterns: modeling individual behaviour in a large predator. Oikos, 105: 15-30. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.1999.12730.x.
6. Bailey, H., and Thompson, P. 2006. Quantitative analysis of bottlenose dolphin movement patterns and their relationship with foraging. J. Anim. Ecol. 75: 456-465. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01066.x.
7. Bengtsson, G., Nilsson, E., Ryden, T., and Wiktorsson, M. 2004. Irregular walks and loops combine in small-scale movement of a soil insect: implication for dispersal biology. J. Theor. Biol. 231: 299-306. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi. 2004.06.025.
8. Bennetts, R.E., Nichols, J.D., Lebreton, J.D., Pradel, R., Hines, J.E., and Kitchens, W.M. 2001. Methods for estimating dispersal probabilities and related parameters using marked animals. In Dispersal. Edited by J. Clobert, E. Danchin, A.A. Dhondt, and J.D. Nichols. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 3-17.
9. Bergman, C.M., Schaefer, J.A., and Luttich, S.N. 2000. Caribou movement as a correlated random walk. Oecologia, 123: 364-374. doi:10.1007/s004420051023.
10. Bertram, B.C.R. 1979. Home range of a hingeback tortoise in the Serengeti. Afr. J. Ecol. 17: 241-244.
11. Blejwas, K.M., Sacks, B.N., Jaeger, M.M., and McCullough, D.R. 2002. The effectiveness of selective removal of breeding coyotes in reducing sheep predation. J. Wildl. Manag. 66: 451-462.
12. Bovet, P., and Benhamou, S. 1988. Spatial analysis of animal movements using a correlated random walk model. J. Theor. Biol. 131: 419-433. doi:10.1016/S0022-5193(88)80038-9.
13. Bremner-Harrison, S., Prodohl, P.A., and Elwood, R.W. 2004. Behavioural trait assessment as a release criterion: boldness predicts early death in a reintroduction programme of captive-bred swift fox (Vulpes velox). Anim. Conserv. 7: 313-320. doi:10.1017/S1367943004001490.
14. Buck, S., Mullis, C., and Mossman, A. 1979. A radiotelemetry study of fishers in northwestern California. Trans. Cal.-Nev. Wildl. 1979: 166-172.
15. Byers, J.A. 2001. Correlated random walk equations of animal dispersal resolved by simulation. Ecology, 82: 1680-1690. doi:10.2307/2679810.
16. Campbell, R.D., Rosell, F., Nolet, B., and Dijkstra, V.A.A. 2005. Territory and group size in Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber): echoes of settlement and reproduction? Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 58: 597-607. doi:10.1007/s00265-005-0942-6.
17. Claussen, D.L., Finkler, M.S., and Smith, M.M. 1997. Thread trailing of turtles: methods for evaluating spatial movements and pathway structure. Can. J. Zool. 75: 2120-2128.
18. Cochran, W.W., Montgomery, G.G., and Graber, R.R. 1967. Migratory flights of hylocichla thrushes in spring: a radiotelemetry study. Living Bird, 6: 213-225.
19. Crist, T.O., Guertin, D.S., Wiens, J.A., and Milne, B.T. 1992. Animal movement in heterogeneous landscapes: an experiment with Eleodes beetles in shortgrass prairie. Funct. Ecol. 6: 536-544. doi:10.2307/2390050.
20. Davis, J.M., and Stamps, J.A. 2004. The effect of natal experience on habitat preferences. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19: 411-416. doi:10.1016/j.tree. 2004.04.006.
21. DeAngelis, D.L., and Gross, L.J. (Editors). 1992. Individual-based models and approaches in ecology: population, communities, and ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, New York.
22. Desroches, A. 2003. Bridging the gap: linking individual bird movement and territorial establishment rules with their patterns of distribution in fragmented forests. In Animal behavior and wildlife conservation. Edited by M. Festa-Bianchet and M. Appolonio. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 63-76.
23. Dicke, M., and Burrough, P.A. 1988. Using fractal dimensions for characterizing tortuosity of animal traits. Physiol. Entomol. 13: 393-398.
24. Doak, P. 2000. Population consequences of restricted dispersal for an insect herbivore in a subdivided habitat. Ecology, 81: 1828-1841. doi:10.2307/177274.
25. Doerr, E.D., and Doerr, V.A. 2005. Dispersal range analysis: quantifying individual variation in dispersal behaviour. Oecologia, 142: 1-10. doi:10.1007/s00442-004-1707-z.
26. Doerr, V.A., and Doerr, E.D. 2004. Fractal analysis can explain individual variation in dispersal search patterns. Ecology, 85: 1428-1438.
27. Doncaster, C.P., and Woodroffe, R. 1993. Den site can determine shape and size of badger territories - implications for group-living. Oikos, 66: 88-93.
28. Drickamer, L.C., and Gillie, L.L. 1998. Integrating proximate and ultimate causation in the study of vertebrate behavior - methods and considerations. Am. Zool. 38: 43-58.
29. Durant, S. 2000. Living with the enemy: avoidance of hyenas and lions by cheetahs in the Serengeti. Behav. Ecol. 11: 624-632. doi:10.1093/beheco/ 11.6.624.
30. Eason, P.K., and Hannon, S.J. 2003. Effect of pairing status on use of space by territorial willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus): bachelor males choose life on the edge. Auk, 120: 497-504. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2003) 120[0497:EOPSOU]2.0.CO;2.
31. Eason, P.K., and Switzer, P.V. 2004. The costs of neighbors for a territorial dragonfly, Perithemis tenera. Ethology, 110: 37-47. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0310.2003.00942.x.
32. Eason, P.K., Cobbs, G.A., and Trinca, K.G. 1999. The use of landmarks to define territorial boundaries. Anim. Behav. 58: 85-91. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1133.
33. Fortin, D., Beyer, H.L., Boyce, M.S., Smith, D.W., Duchesne, T., and Mao, J.S. 2005. Wolves influence elk movements: behavior shapes a trophic cascade in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology, 86: 1320-1330.
34. Gaskin, D.E., Smith, G.J.D., and Watson, A.P. 1975. Preliminary movements of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) in the Bay of Fundy using radiotelemetry. Can. J. Zool. 53: 1466-1471.
35. Gautestad, A.O., and Mysterud, I. 2005. Intrinsic scaling complexity in animal dispersion and abundance. Am. Nat. 165: 44-55. doi:10.1086/426673.
36. Gese, E.M., Ruff, R.L., and Crabtree, R. 1996. Foraging ecology of coyotes (Canis latrans): influence of extrinsic factors and a dominance hierarchy. Can. J. Zool. 74: 769-783.
37. Getty, T. 1987. Dear enemies and the prisoner's dilemma: why should territorial neighbors form defensive coalitions? Am. Zool. 27: 327-336.
38. Girman, D.J., Mills, M.G.L., Geffen, E., and Wayne, R.K. 1997. A molecular genetic analysis of social structure, dispersal, and interpack relationships of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 40: 187-198. doi:10.1007/s002650050332.
39. Glück, E. 1984. Habitat selection in birds and the role of early experience. Z. Tierpsychol. 66: 45-54.
40. Haefner, J.W., and Crist, T.O. 1994. Spatial model of movement and foraging in harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex) (I): the roles of memory and communication. J. Theor. Biol. 166: 299-313. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1994.1027.
41. Hansteen, T.L., Andreassen, H.P., and Ims, R.A. 1997. Effects of spatiotemporal scale on autocorrelation and home range estimators. J. Wildl. Manag. 61: 280-290.
42. Haughland, D.L., and Larsen, K.W. 2004. Exploration correlates with settlement: red squirrel dispersal in contrasting habitats. J. Anim. Ecol. 73: 1024-1034. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8790.2004.00884.x.
43. Hemson, G., Johnson, P., South, A., Kenward, R., Ripley, R., and Macdonald, D. 2005. Are kernels the mustard? Data from global positioning system (GPS) collars suggests problems for kernel home-range analyses with least-squares cross-validation. J. Anim. Ecol. 74: 455-463.
44. Hoffmann, A.A. 1987. A laboratory study of male territoriality in the sibling species Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Anim. Behav. 35: 807-818. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(87)80117-3.
45. Howery, L.D., Provenza, F.D., Banner, R.E., and Scott, C.B. 1998. Social and environmental factors influence cattle distribution on rangeland. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 55: 231-244. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00054-3.
46. Huston, M., DeAngelis, D., and Post, W. 1988. New computer models unifying ecological theory. Bioscience, 38: 682-691. doi:10.2307/1310870.
47. Jeanson, R., Blanco, S., Fournier, R., Deneubourg, J., Fourcassié, V., and Theraulaz, G. 2003. A model of animal movements in bounded space. J. Theor. Biol. 225: 443-451. doi:10.1016/S0022-5193(03)00277-7.
48. Jeffries, D.S., and Brunton, D.H. 2001. Attracting endangered species to 'safe' habitats: responses of Fairy Terns to decoys. Anim. Conserv. 4: 301-305.
49. Johnson, A.R., Wiens, J.A., Milne, B.T., and Crist, T.O. 1992. Animal movements and population dynamics in heterogeneous landscapes. Landsc. Ecol. 7: 63-75.
50. Kareiva, P. 1994. Space: the final frontier for ecological theory. Ecology, 75: 1. doi:10.2307/1939376.
51. Kareiva, P., and Shigesada, N. 1983. Analyzing insect movement as a correlated random walk. Oecologia, 56: 234-238. doi:10.1007/BF00379695.
52. Katano, O., Uchida, K., and Aonuma, Y. 2004. Experimental analysis of the territorial establishment of ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis. Ecol. Res. 19: 433-444. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1703.2004.00654.x.
53. Kernohan, B.J., Gitzen, R.A., and Millspaugh, J.J. 2001. Analysis of animal space use and movements. In Radio tracking and animal populations. Edited by J.J. Millspaugh and J.M. Marzluff. Academic Press, San Diego. pp. 125-166.
54. Kitchen, A.M., and Knowlton, F.F. 2006. Evaluation of cross-fostering among canids: a conservation and research tool. Biol. Conserv. 129: 221-225. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.036.
55. Kitchen, A.M., Gese, E.M., Waits, L.P., Karki, S.M., and Schauster, E.R. 2005. Genetic and spatial structure within a swift fox population. J. Anim. Ecol. 74: 1173-1181. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.01017.x.
56. Korniss, G., and Caraco, T. 2005. Spatial dynamics of invasion. J. Theor. Biol. 233: 137-150. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.09.018.
57. LaManna, J.R., and Eason, P.K. 2003. Effects of landmarks on territorial establishment. Anim. Behav. 65: 471-478. doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2095.
58. Lamoureux, V.S., Maerz, J.C., and Madison, D.M. 2002. Premigratory autumn foraging forays in the green frog, Rana clamitans. J. Herpetol. 36: 245-254.
59. Larsen, K.W., and Boutin, S. 1995. Exploring territory quality in the North American red squirrel through removal experiments. Can. J. Zool. 73: 1115-1122.
60. Lindström, E. 1986. Territory inheritance and the evolution of group-living in carnivores. Anim. Behav. 34: 1825-1835. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80268-8.
61. Logan, J.A., White, P., Bentz, B.J., and Powell, J.A. 1998. Model analysis of spatial patterns in mountain pine beetle outbreaks. Theor. Popul. Biol. 53: 236-255.
62. Macdonald, D.W. 1983. The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature (London), 301: 379-384. doi:10.1038/301379a0.
63. Macdonald, D.W., and Rushton, S. 2003. Modelling space use and dispersal of mammals in real landscapes: a tool for conservation. J. Biogeogr. 30: 607-620.
64. Mandelbrot, B.B. 1983. The fractal geometry of nature. W.H. Freeman, New York.
65. Maynard Smith, J.P., and Price, G.R. 1973. The logic of animal conflict. Nature (London), 246: 15-18. doi:10.1038/246015a0.
66. McCulloch, C.E., and Cain, M.L. 1989. Analyzing discrete movement data as a correlated random walk. Ecology, 70: 383-388. doi:10.2307/1937543.
67. McIntyre, N.E., and Wiens, J.A. 1999. Interactions between landscape structure and animal behavior: the roles of heterogeneously distributed resources and food deprivation on movement patterns. Landsc. Ecol. 14: 437-447. doi:10.1023/A:1008074407036.
68. McNicol, R.E., and Noakes, D.L.G. 1981. Territories and territorial defense in juvenile brook char, Salvelinus fontinalis (Pisces: Salmonidae). Can. J. Zool. 59: 22-28.
69. Milne, B.T. 1991. Lessons from applying fractal models to landscape patterns. In Quantitative methods in landscape ecology. Edited by M.G. Turner and R.H. Gardner. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 199-235.
70. Minchinton, T.E. 1997. Life on the edge: conspecific attraction and recruitment of populations to disturbed habitats. Oecologia, 111: 45-52. doi:10.1007/s004420050206.
71. Morrell, L.J., and Kokko, H. 2005. Bridging the gap between mechanistic and adaptive explanations of territory formation. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 57: 381-390. doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0859-5.
72. Moyer, M.A., Walter McCown, J., Eason, T.H., and Oli, M.K. 2006. Does genetic relatedness influence space use pattern? A test on Florida black bears. J. Mammal. 87: 255-261.
73. Muller, K.L., Stamps, J.A., Krishnan, V.V., and Willits, N.H. 1997. The effects of conspecific attraction and habitat quality on habitat selection in territorial birds (Troglodytes aedon). Am. Nat. 150: 650-661. doi:10.1086/286087.
74. Nakaoka, M., and Noda, T. 2004. Special feature: multiple spatial scale approaches in population and community ecology. Popul. Ecol. 46: 103-104.
75. Neu, C.W., Byers, C.R., and Peek, J.M. 1974. A technique for analysis of utilization-distribution data. J. Wildl. Manag. 38: 541-545.
76. Nolet, B.A., and Rosell, F. 1994. Territoriality and time budgets in beavers during sequential settlement. Can. J. Zool. 72: 1227-1237.
77. Odden, M., and Wegge, P. 2005. Spacing and activity patterns of leopards Panthera pardus in the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. Wildl. Biol. 11: 145-152.
78. Ostfeld, R.S., Glass, G.E., and Keesing, F. 2005. Spatial epidemiology: an emerging (or re-emerging) discipline. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20: 328-336. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.03.009.
79. Partecke, J., von Haeseler, A., and Wikelski, M. 2002. Territory establishment in lekking marine iguanas, Amblyrhynchus cristatus: support for the hotshot mechanism. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 51: 579-587. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0469-z.
80. Pitt, W.C., and Ritchie, M.E. 2002. Influence of prey distribution on the functional response of lizards. Oikos, 96: 157-163. doi:10.1034/j.1600- 0706.2002.960117.x.
81. Podolsky, R.H. 1990. Effectiveness of social stimuli in attracting Laysan Albatross to new potential nesting sites. Auk, 107: 119-125.
82. Powell, R.A. 2000. Animal home ranges and territories and home range estimators. In Research techniques in animal ecology: controversies and consequences. Edited by L. Boitani and T.K. Fuller. Columbia University Press, New York. pp. 65-110.
83. Reznikova, Z., and Dorosheva, H. 2004. Impacts of red wood ants Formica polyctena on the spatial distribution and behavioural patterns of ground beetles (Carabidae). Pedobiologia, 48: 15-21.
84. Rominger, E.M., Whitlaw, H.A., Weybright, D.L., Dunn, W.C., and Ballard, W.B. 2004. The influence of mountain lion predation on bighorn sheep translocations. J. Wildl. Manag. 68: 993-999.
85. Root, R.B., and Kareiva, P.M. 1984. The search for resources by cabbage butterflies (Pieris rapae): ecological consequences and adaptive significance of Markovian movements in a patchy environment. Ecology, 65: 147-165. doi:10.2307/1939467.
86. Ruckelshaus, M., Hartway, C., and Kareiva, P.M. 1997. Assessing the data requirements of spatially explicit dispersal models. Conserv. Biol. 11: 1298-1306. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96151.x.
87. Ruth, T.K., Logan, K.A., Sweanor, L.L., Hornocker, M.G., and Temple, L.J. 1998. Evaluating cougar translocation in New Mexico. J. Wildl. Manag. 62: 1264-1275.
88. Sacks, B.N., Brown, S.K., and Ernest, H.B. 2004. Population structure of California coyotes corresponds to habitat-specific breaks and illuminates species history. Mol. Ecol. 13: 1265-1275. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004. 02110.x.
89. Sacks, B.N., Mitchell, B.R., Williams, C.L., and Ernest, H.B. 2005. Coyote movements and social structure along a cryptic population genetic subdivision. Mol. Ecol. 14: 1241-1249. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005. 02473.x.
90. Sale, P.F. 1975. Patterns of use of space in a guild of territorial reef fishes. Mar. Biol. (Berl.), 29: 88-97.
91. Samuel, M.D., Pierce, D.J., and Garton, E.O. 1985. Identifying areas of concentrated use within the home range. J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 1067-1068.
92. Scandura, M., Appolonio, M., and Mattioli, L. 2001. Recent recovery of the Italian wolf population: a genetic investigation using microsatellites. Mamm. Biol. 66: 321-331.
93. Schuck-Paim, C., and Alonso, W.J. 2001. Deciding where to settle: conspecific attraction and web site selection in the orb-web spider. Anim. Behav. 62: 1007-1012.
94. Seaman, D.E., and Powell, R.A. 1996. An evaluation of the accuracy of kernel density estimators for home range analysis. Ecology, 77: 2075-2085. doi:10.2307/2265701.
95. Sergio, F., and Penteriani, V. 2005. Public information and territory establishment in a loosely colonial raptor. Ecology, 86: 340-346.
96. Shigesada, N. 1980. Spatial distribution of dispersing animals. J. Math. Biol. 9: 85-96. doi:10.1007/BF00276037.
97. Skellam, J.G. 1951. Random dispersal in theoretical populations. Biometrika, 38: 196-218. doi:10.2307/2332328.
98. Smith, D.W., Brewster, W.G., and Bangs, E.E. 1999. Wolves in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem: restoration of a top carnivore in a complex management environment. In Carnivores in ecosystems: the Yellowstone experience. Edited by T.W. Clark, A.P. Curlee, S.C. Minta, and P.M. Kareiva. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. pp. 103-125.
99. Sokolowski, M.B., Bauer, S.J., Wai-Ping, V., Rodriguez, L., Wong, R.L., and Kent, C. 1986. Ecological genetics and behaviour of Drosophila melanogaster larvae in nature. Anim. Behav. 34: 403-408. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80109-9.
100. Speake, D.W., and McGlincy, J.A. 1981. Response of indigo snakes to gassing of their dens. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies, 35: 135-138.
101. Spong, G., and Creel, S. 2004. Effects of kinship on territorial conflicts among groups of lions, Panthera leo. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 55: 325-331. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0723-z.
102. Stahl, P., Vandel, J.M., Ruette, S., Coat, L., Coat, Y., and Balestra, L. 2002. Factors affecting lynx predation on sheep in the French Jura. J. Appl. Ecol. 39: 204-216. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00709.x.
103. Stamps, J.A. 1988. Conspecific attraction and aggregation in territorial species. Am. Nat. 131: 329-347. doi:10.1086/284793.
104. Stamps, J.A. 1995. Motor learning and the value of familiar space. Am. Nat. 146: 41-58. doi:10.1086/285786.
105. Stamps, J.A., and Krishnan, V.V. 1997. The function of fights in territory establishment. Am. Nat. 150: 393-405. doi:10.1086/286071.
106. Stamps, J.A., and Krishnan, V.V. 1999. A learning-based model of territory establishment. Q. Rev. Biol. 74: 291-318. doi:10.1086/393163.
107. Stamps, J.A., and Krishnan, V.V. 2001. How territorial animals compete for divisible space: a learning-based model with unequal competitors. Am. Nat. 157: 154-169. doi:10.1086/318634.
108. Stamps, J.A., and Swaisgood, R.R. 2007. Someplace like home: experience, habitat selection and conservation biology. In Special issue: Animal behaviour, conservation and enrichment. Applied animal behaviour science. Edited by R. Swaisgood. In press.
109. Stamps, J.A., Buechner, M., Alexander, K., Davis, J., and Zunigas, N. 2005a. Genotypic differences in space use and movement patterns in Drosophila melanogaster. Anim. Behav. 70: 609-618. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.11.018.
110. Stamps, J.A., McElreath, R., and Eason, P. 2005b. Alternative models of conspecific attraction in flies and crabs. Behav. Ecol. 16: 974-980. doi:10.1093/beheco/ari083.
111. Stockhausen, W.T., Lipcius, R.N., and Hickey, B.M. 2000. Joint effects of larval dispersal, population regulation, marine reserve design, and exploitation on production and recruitment in the Caribbean spiny lobster. Bull. Mar. Sci. 66: 957-990.
112. Stoen, O.G., Bellemain, E., Saebo, S., and Swenson, J.E. 2005. Kin-related spatial structure in brown bears Ursus arctos. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 59: 191-197. doi:10.1007/s00265-005-0024-9.
113. Swenson, J.E., Sandegren, F., and Söderberg, A. 1998. Geographic expansion of an increasing brown bear population: evidence for presaturation dispersal. J. Anim. Ecol. 67: 819-826. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.1998. 00248.x.
114. Swihart, R.K., and Slade, N.A. 1985. Testing for independence of observations in animal movements. Ecology, 66: 1176-1184. doi:10.2307/1939170.
115. Switzer, P.V., and Eason, P.K. 2003. Space use in territorial amberwing dragonflies: are residents female maximizers or neighbor minimizers? Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54: 321-328. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0650-z.
116. Tarof, S.A., and Ratcliffe, L.M. 2000. Pair formation and copulation behavior in least flycatcher clusters. Condor, 102: 832-837. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0832:PFACBI]2.0.CO;2.
117. Trakhtenbrot, A., Nathan, R., Perry, G., and Richardson, D.M. 2005. The importance of long-distance dispersal in biodiversity conservation. Divers. Distrib. 11: 173-181. doi:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00156.x.
118. Treves, A., Naughton-Treves, L., Harper, E.K., Mladenoff, D.J., Rose, R.A., Sickley, T.A., and Wydeven, A.P. 2004. Predicting human-carnivore conflict: a spatial model derived from 25 years of data on wolf predation on livestock. Conserv. Biol. 18: 114-125. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004. 00189.x.
119. Turchin, P. 1989. Population consequences of aggregative movement. J. Anim. Ecol. 58: 75-100.
120. Turchin, P. 1991. Translating foraging movements in heterogeneous environments into the spatial distribution of foragers. Ecology, 72: 1253-1266. doi:10.2307/1941099.
121. Turchin, P. 1996. Fractal analyses of animal movements: a critique. Ecology, 77: 2086-2090. doi:10.2307/2265702.
122. Underwood, N., Hamback, P., and Inouye, B.D. 2005. Large-scale questions and small-scale data: empirical and theoretical methods for scaling up in ecology. Oecologia, 145: 177-178.
123. Van Winkle, W. 1975. Comparison of several probabilistic home-range models. J. Wildl. Manag. 39: 118-123.
124. Vuilleumier, S., and Metzger, R. 2006. Animal dispersal modeling: handling landscape features and related animal choices. Ecol. Model. 190: 159-170. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.04.017.
125. Wang, G.Y., and Greenfield, M.D. 1994. Ontogeny of territoriality in the desert clicker Ligurotettix coquilletti (Orthoptera, Arcididae). J. Insect Behav. 7: 327-342. doi:10.1007/BF01989739.
126. Ward, M.P., and Schlossberg, S. 2004. Conspecific attraction and the conservation of territorial songbirds. Conserv. Biol. 18: 519-525. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00494.x.
127. West, P.M., and Packer, C. 2002. Sexual selection, temperature, and the lion's mane. Science (Washington, D.C.), 297: 1339-1343. doi:10.1126/science.1073257.
128. Westcott, D.A., and Graham, D.L. 2000. Patterns of movement and seed dispersal of a tropical frugivore. Oecologia, 122: 249-257. doi:10.1007/PL00008853.
129. White, G.C., and Garrott, R.A. 1990. Analysis of radio-tracking data. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
130. White, K.A., Lewis, M.A., and Murray, J.D. 1996. A model of wolf-pack territory formation and maintenance. J. Theor. Biol. 178: 29-43. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0004.
131. White, K.A.J., and Gilligan, C.A. 1998. Spatial heterogeneity in three-species, plant-parasite-hyperparasite, systems. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 353: 543-557.
132. Wiens, J.A., Stenseth, N.C., VanHorn, B., and Ims, R.A. 1993. Ecological mechanisms and landscape ecology. Oikos, 66: 369-380.
133. Wiens, J.A., Crist, T.O., With, K.A., and Milne, B.T. 1995. Fractal patterns of insect movement in microlandscape mosaics. Ecology, 76: 663-666. doi:10.2307/1941226.
134. Wiktorsson, M., Ryden, T., Nilsson, E., and Bengtsson, G. 2004. Modelling the movement of a soil insect. J. Theor. Biol. 231: 497-513. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.06.024.
135. Wilder, S.M., and Rypstra, A.L. 2004. Chemical cues from an introduced predator (Mantodea, Manitidae) reduce the movement and foraging of a native wolf spider (Araneae, Lycosidae) in the laboratory. Environ. Entomol. 33: 1032-1036.
136. Williams, J.C., ReVelle, C.S., and Levin, S.A. 2005. Spatial attributes and reserve design models: a review. Environ. Model. Assess. 10: 163-181.
137. With, K.A. 1994. Ontogenetic shifts in how grasshoppers interact with landscape structure: an analysis of movement patterns. Funct. Ecol. 8: 477-485. doi:10.2307/2390072.
138. Wolf, L.L., Waltz, E.C., Klockowski, D., and Wakeley, K. 1997. Influences on variation in territorial tenures of male white-faced dragonflies (Leucorrhinia intacta) (Odonata: Libellulidae). J. Insect Behav. 10: 31-47.
139. Woodroffe, R., and Frank, L.G. 2005. Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional population impacts. Anim. Conserv. 8: 91-98. doi:10.1017/S1367943004001829.
140. Woodroffe, R., Donnelly, C.A., Johnston, W.T., Bourne, F.J., Cheeseman, C.L., Clifton-Hadley, R.S., Cox, D.R., Gettinby, G., Hewinson, R.G., LeFevre, A.M., McInerney, J.P., and Morrison, W.I. 2005. Spatial association of Myobacterium bovis infection in cattle and badgers Meles meles. J. Appl. Ecol. 42: 852-862. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01081.x.
141. Worton, B.J. 1987. A review of models of home range for animal movement. Ecol. Model. 38: 277-298. doi:10.1016/0304-3800(87)90101-3.