Electrical cardioversion for AF - The state of the art

PACE - Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 554-567

  Gall, Nicholas P ^a,b   Murgatroyd, Francis D ^a  

^a KING S COLLEGE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b GUY'S AND ST THOMAS' NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; DIGOXIN; DILTIAZEM; DOFETILIDE; ENALAPRIL; FLECAINIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IBUTILIDE; IRBESARTAN; METOPROLOL; PLACEBO; PROCAINAMIDE; PROPAFENONE; QUINIDINE; SOTALOL; VERAPAMIL;

CALCIUM CELL LEVEL; CARDIOVERSION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEFIBRILLATION; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART ATRIUM FLUTTER; HEART DEPOLARIZATION; HEART INJURY; HEART PROARRHYTHMIA; HEART RATE; HEART VENTRICLE REMODELING; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; SINUS RHYTHM; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION;

ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS; CLINICAL TRIALS; ELECTRIC COUNTERSHOCK; HUMANS;

EID: 34247096559     PISSN: 01478389     EISSN: 15408159     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2007.00709.x     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48:854-906.
2. McNamara RL, Tamariz LJ, Segal JB, et al. Management of atrial fibrillation: Review of the evidence for the role of pharmacologic therapy, electrical cardioversion and echocardiography. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139:1018-1033.
3. Falk RH. Atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1067-1078.
4. Lairikyengbam SKS, Anderson MH, Davies AG. Present treatment options for atrial fibrillation. Postgrad Med J 2003; 79:67-73.
5. Chugh SS, Blackshear JL, Shen W-K, et al. Epidemiology and natural history of atrial fibrillation: Clinical implications. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37:371-378.
6. Haissaguerre M, Jais P, Shah DC, et al. Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:659-666.
7. Affirm Investigators. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:1825-1833.
8. Van Gelder IC, Hagens VE, Bosker HA, et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:1834-1840.
9. Hohnloser SH, Kuck KH, Lilienthal J. Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation - Pharmacological intervention in atrial fibrillation (PIAF): A randomised trial. Lancet 2000; 356:1789-1794.
10. Vidaillet H, Greenlee RT. Rate control vs rhythm control. Curr Opin Cardiol 2004; 20:15-20.
11. Corley SD, Epstein AE, DiMarco JP, et al. Relationships between sinus rhythm, treatment, and survival in the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-Up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) Study. Circulation 2004; 109:1509-1513.
12. Hsu L-F, Jaïs P, Sanders P, et al. Catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation in congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:2373-2383.
13. Singh BN, Singh SN, Reda DJ, et al. Amiodarone versus sotalol for atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1861-1872.
14. Zoll PM, Linenthal AJ, Gibson W, et al. Termination of ventricular fibrillation in man by externally applied electric countershock. N Engl J Med 1956; 254:727.
15. Lown B, Amarasingham R, Neuman J. New method for terminating cardiac arrhythmias. Use of synchronized capacitor discharge. JAMA 1962; 182:548-555.
16. Lown B, Perlroth MG, Kaidbey S, et al. "Cardioversion" of atrial fibrillation. A report on the treatment of 65 episodes in 50 patients. N Engl J Med 1963; 269:325-331.
17. Levy S, Lauribe P, Dolla E, et al. A randomized comparison of external and internal cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Circulation 1992; 86:1415-1420.
18. Allessie MA, Boyden PA, Camm AJ, et al. Pathophysiology and prevention of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2001; 103:769-777.
19. Veenhuyzen GD, Simpson CS, Abdollah H. Atrial fibrillation. CMAJ 2004; 171:755-760.
20. Nademanee K, McKenzie J, Kosar E, et al. A new approach for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: Mapping of the electrophysiological substrate. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:2044-2053.
21. Pappone C, Santinelli V, Manguso F, et al. Pulmonary vein denervation enhances long-term benefit after circumferential ablation for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2004; 109:327-334.
22. Nakashima H, Kumagai K, Urata H, et al. Angiotensin II antagonist prevents electrical remodelling in atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2000; 101:2612-2617.
23. Shinagawa K, Mitamura H, Ogawa S, et al. Effects of inhibiting Na/H-exchange or angiotensin converting enzyme on atrial tachycardia-induced remodelling. Cardiovasc Res 2002; 54:438-446.
24. Wijffels MCEF, Kirchhof CJHJ, Dorland R, et al. Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation: A study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation 1995; 92:1954-1968.
25. Walcott GP, Hunter F, Ideker RE. Principles of defibrillation: Cellular physiology to fields and waveforms. In: Ellenbogen KA, et al. (eds.): Clinical Cardiac Pacing and Defibrillation. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 2000, pp. 53-67.
26. Ewy GA. Optimal technique for electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 1992; 86:1645-1647.
27. Crijns HJGM, Van Noord T, Van Gelder IC. Recurrence of atrial fibrillation and the need for new definitions. Eur Heart J 2001; 22:1769-1771.
28. Lown B, Kleiger R, Wolff G. The technique of cardioversion. Am Heart J 1964; 67:282-284.
29. Kerber RE, Jensen SR, Grayzel J, et al. Elective cardioversion: Influence of paddle-electrode location and size on success rates and energy requirements. N Engl J Med 1981; 305:658-662.
30. Dalzell GW, Anderson J, Adgey AA. Factors determining success and energy requirements for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Q J Med 1990; 76:903-913.
31. Mathew TP, Moore A, McIntyre M, et al. Randomised comparison of electrode positions for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Heart 1999; 81:576-579.
32. Botto GL, Politi A, Bonini W, et al. External cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: Role of paddle position on technical efficacy and energy requirements. Heart 1999; 82:726-730.
33. Alp NJ, Rahman S, Bell JA, Shahi M. Randomised comparison of antero-lateral versus antero-posterior paddle positions for DC cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Int J Cardiol 2000; 75:211-216.
34. Kirchhof P, Eckardt L, Loh P, et al. Anterior-posterior versus anterior-lateral electrode positions for external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: A randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 360:1275-1279.
35. Walsh SJ, McCarty D, McClelland AJJ, et al. Impedance compensated biphasic waveforms for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: A multi-centre comparison of antero-apical and antero-posterior pad positions. Eur Heart J 2005; 26:1298.
36. Kroll MW, Tchou PJ. Testing of implantable defibrillator functions at implantation. In: Ellenbogen KA, et al. (eds.): Clinical Cardiac Pacing and Defibrillation. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 2000, pp. 540-561.
37. Oral H, Brinkman K, Pelosi F, et al. Effect of electrode polarity on the energy required for transthoracic atrial defibrillation. Am J Cardiol 1999; 84:228-230.
38. Rashba EJ, Bouhouch R, MacMurdy KA, et al. Effect of shock polarity on the efficacy of transthoracic atrial defibrillation. Am Heart J 2002; 143:541-545.
39. Maixent JM, Barbey O, Pierre S, et al. Inhibition of Na,K-ATPase by external electrical cardioversion in a sheep model of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2000; 11:439-445.
40. Joglar JA, Hamdan MH, Ramaswamy K, et al. Initial energy for elective external cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86:348-350.
41. Boos C, Thomas MD, Jones A, et al. Higher energy monophasic DC cardioversion for persistent atrial fibrillation: Is it time to start at 360 Joules? Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2003; 8:121-126.
42. Marrouche NF, Bardy GH, Frielitz HJ, et al. Quadruple pads approach for external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001; 24:1321-1324.
43. Nathan AW, Bexton RS, Spurrell RAJ, et al. Internal transvenous low energy cardioversion for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. Br Heart J 1984; 52:377-384.
44. Levy S, Lacombe P, Cointe R, et al. High energy transcatheter cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988; 12:514-518.
45. Mansourati J, Larlet J-M, Salaun G, et al. Safety of high energy internal cardioversion for atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1997; 20:1919-1923.
46. Murgatroyd FD, Slade AKB, Sopher SM, et al. Efficacy and tolerability or transvenous low energy cardioversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 25:1347-1353.
47. Sopher SM, Murgatroyd FD, Slade AK, et al. Low energy internal cardioversion of atrial fibrillation resistant to transthoracic shocks. Heart 1996; 75:635-638.
48. Levy S, Ricard P, Lau CP, et al. Multi-center low energy transvenous atrial defibrillation (XAD) trial results in different subsets of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29:750-755.
49. Lévy S, Ricard P, Gueunoun M, et al. Low-energy cardioversion of spontaneous atrial fibrillation: Immediate and long-term results Circulation 1997; 96:253-259.
50. Levy S. Internal defibrillation: Where we have been and where we should be going. J Interv Card Electrophysiol 2005; 13:61-66.
51. Boriani G, Biffi M, Camanini C, et al. Transvenous low energy internal cardioversion for atrial fibrillation: A review of clinical applications and future developments. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001; 24:99-107.
52. Alt E, Ammer R, Schmitt C. A comparison of treatment of atrial fibrillation with low-energy intracardiac cardioversion and conventional external cardioversion. Eur Heart J 1997; 18:1796-1804.
53. Schmitt C, Alt E, Plewan A, et al. Low energy intracardiac cardioversion after failed conventional external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 28:994-999.
54. Mitchell ARJ. The patient takes charge - Long term use of the atrial defibrillator. Eur Heart J 2003; 24:2075-2076.
55. Schneider T, Martens PR, Paschen H, et al. Multi-centre, randomized, controlled trial of 150-J biphasic shocks compared with 200-to 360-J monophasic shocks in the resuscitation of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest victims. Circulation 2000; 102:1780-1787.
56. Cooper RA, Alferness CA, Smith WM, et al. Internal cardioversion of atrial fibrillation in sheep. Circulation 1993; 87:1673-1686.
57. Jones JL, Tovar OH. Electrophysiology of ventricular fibrillation and defibrillation. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:N219-N221.
58. Niebauer MJ, Brewer JE, Chung MK, Tchou PJ. Comparison of the rectilinear biphasic waveform with the monophasic damped sine waveform for external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation and flutter. Am J Cardiol 2004; 93:1495-1499.
59. Ermis C, Zhu AX, Sunil Sinha S, et al. Efficacy of biphasic waveform cardioversion for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter compared with conventional monophasic waveforms. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90:892-893.
60. Gurevitz OT, Ammash NM, Malouf JF, et al. Comparative efficacy of monophasic and biphasic waveforms for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. Am Heart J 2005; 149:316-321.
61. Mittal S, Ayati S, Stein KM, et al. Transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: Comparison of rectilinear biphasic versus damped sine wave monophasic shocks. Circulation 2000; 101:1282-1287.
62. Ricard P, Levy S, Boccara G, et al. External cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: Comparison of biphasic vs monophasic waveform shocks. Europace 2001; 3:96-99.
63. Neri G, Alitto F, Zamprogno R, et al. Efficacy and safety of ambulatory electric cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with monophasic and biphasic shock. Ital Heart J 2001; 2:1315-1318.
64. Page RL, Kerber RE, Russell JK, et al. Biphasic versus monophasic shock waveform for conversion of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39:1956-1963.
65. Marinsek M, Larkin GL, Zohar P, et al. Efficacy and impact of monophasic versus biphasic countershocks for transthoracic cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 2003; 92:988-991.
66. Scholten M, Szili-Torok T, Klootwijk P, et al. Comparison of monophasic and biphasic shocks for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Heart 2003; 89:1032-1034.
67. Siaplaouras S, Buob A, Rotter C, et al. Impact of biphasic electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation on early recurrent atrial fibrillation and shock efficacy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2004; 15:895-897.
68. Koster RW, Dorian P, Chapman FW.Arandomized trial comparing monophasic and biphasic waveform shocks for external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J 2004; 147:e20.
69. Santomauro M, Borrelli A, Ottaviano L, et al. Transthoracic cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation: Comparison of three different waveforms. Ital Heart J 2004; 5:36-43.
70. Benditt DG, Samniah N, Iskos D, et al. Biphasic waveform cardioversion as an alternative to internal cardioversion for atrial fibrillation refractory to conventional monophasic waveform transthoracic shock. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88:1426-1428.
71. Khaykin Y, Newman D, Kowalewski M, et al. Biphasic versus monophasic cardioversion in shock-resistant atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2003; 14:868-872.
72. Alatawi F, Gurevitz O, White RD, et al. Prospective, randomized comparison of two biphasic waveforms for the efficacy and safety of transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm 2005; 2:382-387.
73. Kim ML, Kim SG, Park DS, et al. Comparison of rectilinear biphasic waveform energy versus truncated exponential biphasic waveform energy for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 2004; 94:1438-1440.
74. Guarnieri T, Tomaselli G, Griffith LS, Brinker J. The interaction of antiarrhythmic drugs and the energy for cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1991; 14:1007-1012.
75. Van Noord T, Van Gelder IC, Schoonderwoerd BA, et al. Immediate reinitiation of atrial fibrillation after electrical cardioversion predicts subsequent pharmacologic and electrical conversion to sinus rhythm on amiodarone. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86:1384-1385.
76. Rossi M, Lown B. The use of quinidine in cardioversion. Am J Cardiol 1967; 19:234-238.
77. Jacobs LO, Andrews TC, Pederson DN, et al. Effect of intravenous procainamide on direct-current cardioversion of atrial fibrillation Am J Cardiol 1998; 82:241-242.
78. Climent VE, Marin F, Mainar L, et al. Effects of pretreatment with intravenous flecainide on efficacy of external cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2004; 27:368-372.
79. Bianconi L, Mennuni M, Lukic V, et al. Effects of oral propafenone administration before electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation: A placebo-controlled study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 28:700-706.
80. Capucci G, Villani Q, Aschieri D, et al. Oral amiodarone increases the efficacy of direct-current cardioversion in restoration of sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J 2000; 21:66-73.
81. Oral H, Souza JJ, Michaud GF, et al. Facilitating transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with ibutilide pretreatment. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:1849-1854.
82. Singh S, Zoble RG, Yellen L, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral dofetilide in converting to and maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter: The Symptomatic Atrial Fibrillation Investigative Research on Dofetilide (SAFIRE-D) Study. Circulation 2000; 102:2385-2390.
83. Boriani G, Biffi M, Capucci A, et al. Favourable effects of flecainide in transvenous internal cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33:333-341.
84. Lau CP, Lok NS. A comparison of transvenous atrial defibrillation of acute and chronic atrial fibrillation and the effect of intravenous sotalol on human atrial defibrillation threshold. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1997; 20:2442-2452.
85. Lai L-P, Lin J-L, Lien W-P, et al. Intravenous sotalol decreases transthoracic cardioversion energy requirement for chronic atrial fibrillation in humans: Assessment of the electrophysiological effects by biatrial basket electrodes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35:1434-1441.
86. Van Gelder IC, Crijns HJ, Van Gilst WH, et al. Prediction of uneventful cardioversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm from directcurrent electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation and flutter. Am J Cardiol 1991; 68:41-46.
87. Coplen SE, Antman EM, Berlin JA, et al. Efficacy and safety of quinidine therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion. A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Circulation 1990; 82:1106-1116.
88. Crijns HJ, Van Gelder IC, Van Gilst WH, et al. Serial antiarrhythmic drug treatment tomaintain sinus rhythm after electrical cardioversion for chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol 1991; 68:335-341.
89. Capucci A, Villani GQ, Aschieri D, et al. Oral amiodarone increases the efficacy of direct-current cardioversion in restoration of sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J 2000; 21:66-73.
90. Capucci A, Villani GQ, Piepoli MF, et al. The role of oral 1C antiarrhythmic drugs in terminating atrial fibrillation. Curr Opin Cardiol 1999; 14:4-8.
91. Daoud EG, Hummel JD, Augostini R, et al. Effect of verapapmil in immediate recurrence of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2000; 11:1231-1237.
92. Bertaglia E, D'Este D, Zerbo F, Michieletto M, et al. Effects of verapamil and metoprolol on recovery from atrial electrical remodelling after cardioversion of long-lasting atrial fibrillation. Int J Cardiol 2003; 87:167-172.
93. Tieleman RG, Van Gelder IC, Crijns HJ, et al. Early recurrences of atrial fibrillation after electrical cardioversion: A result of fibrillation-induced electrical remodelling of the atria? J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:167-173.
94. Van Noord T, Van Gelder IC, Tieleman RG. VERDICT: The verapamil versus digoxin cardioversion trial: A randomized study on the role of calcium lowering for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2001; 12:766-769.
95. De Simone A, Stabile G, Vitale DF, et al. Pretreatment with verapamil in patients with persistent or chronic atrial fibrillation who underwent electrical cardioversion. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 34:810-814.
96. Villani GQ, Piepoli MF, Terracciano C, et al. Effects of diltiazem pretreatment on direct-current cardioversion in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation: A single-blind, randomized, controlled study. Am Heart J 2000; 140:437-443.
97. Zardo F, Antonini-Canterin F, Brieda M, et al. Can short-term verapamil therapy reduce the recurrence of atrial fibrillation after successful low energy intracardiac cardioversion? Ital Heart J 2001; 2:513-518.
98. De Simone A, De Pasquale M, De Matteis C, et al. Verapamil plus antiarrhythmic drugs reduce atrial fibrillation recurrences after an electrical cardioversion (VEPARAF Study). Eur Heart J 2003; 24:1425-1429.
99. Madrid AH, Bueno MG, Rebollo JMG, et al. Use of irbesartan to maintain sinus rhythm in patients with long-lasting persistent atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2002; 106:331-336.
100. Ueng KC, Tsai TP, Yu WC, et al. Use of enalapril to facilitate sinus rhythm maintenance after external cardioversion of long-standing persistent atrial fibrillation. Results of a prospective and controlled study. Eur Heart J 2003; 24:2090-2098.
101. Zaman AG, Kearney MT, Schecter C, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors as adjunctive therapy in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J 2004; 147:823-827.
102. Madrid AH, Peng J, Zamora J, et al. The role of angiotensin receptor blockers and/or angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in the prevention of atrial fibrillation in patients with cardiovascular diseases: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2004; 27:1405-1410.
103. Healey JS, Baranchuk A, Crystal E, et al. Prevention of atrial fibrillation with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers: A meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45:1832-1839.
104. Siu C-W, Lau C-P, Tse H-F. Prevention of atrial fibrillation recurrence by statin therapy in patients with lone atrial fibrillation after successful cardioversion. Am J Cardiol 2003; 92:1343-1345.
105. Tveit A, Grundtvig M, Gundersen T, et al. Analysis of pravastatin to prevent recurrence of atrial fibrillation after electrical cardioversion. Am J Cardiol 2004; 93:780-787.
106. Fynn SP, Todd DM, Hobbs WJ, et al. Clinical evaluation of a policy of early repeated internal cardioversion for recurrence of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2002; 13:135-141.
107. Lau CP, Tse HF, Lok NS, et al. Initial clinical experience with an implantable human atrial defibrillator. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1997; 20:220-225.
108. Geller JC, Reek S, Timmermans C, et al. Treatment of atrial fibrillation with an implantable atrial defibrillator - Long term results. Eur Heart J 2003; 24:2083-2089.
109. Klein AL, Grimm RA, Murray RD, et al. Use of transesophageal echocardiography to guide cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1411-1420.
110. Klein AL, Murray RD, Grimm RA. Role of transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of patients with atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37:691-704.
111. White RD. Waveforms for defibrillation and cardioversion: Recent experimental and clinical studies. Curr Opin Crit Care 2004; 10:202-207.
112. Halperin JL. Ximelagatran: Oral direct thrombin inhibition as anticoagulant therapy in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45:1-9.
113. Blaauw Y, Gögelein H, Tieleman RG, et al. "Early" class III drugs for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Efficacy and atrial selectivity of AVE0118 in remodelled atria of the goat. Circulation 2004; 110:1717-1724.