Rethinking the 'iron girls': Gender and labour during the Chinese cultural revolution

Gender and History

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 613-634

  Yihong, Jin ^a  

^a NANJING NORMAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL HISTORY; GENDER ISSUE; LABOR; WOMENS EMPLOYMENT;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 34147166711     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2006.00458.x     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. 'Sent-down youth' is a rough translation of the term zhiqing, which denoted urban school graduates who were sent to the countryside for re-education during the Cultural Revolution.
2. Beginning in November 1966, Mao Zedong's 'Supreme Instructions' appeared in three different ways in Renmin ribao: On the top of the first page as an indicator of the main subject of the issue as a whole; as the key to a section, page or column in the newspaper or within individual articles. The phrase 'The times have changed; men and women are the same now ' (Mao zhuxi yulu: Shidai butong le, nannü dou yiyang) was part of a 'Supreme Instruction' that appeared in 'Geming funü burong wumie, funü yongyuan neng dingbanbian tian', Renmin ribao, 8 March 1970, p. 5 and Renmin ribao, 8 March 1974, p. 1 (adjacent to the masthead).
3. Deng Yingchao, 'Zai zhongguo funü dierci daibiao dahui de gongzuo baogao, 16 April 1953', in All-China Women's Federation (ed.), Zhonghua quanguo funü lianhehui 40 nian, 1949-1989 (Beijing: China Women's Press, 1991), pp. 381-94, here p. 383.
4. For more details regarding how women were mobilised by the state to enter all fields of work and how women became the 'first [labour] reserve' during the Great Leap Forward (1958-60), see Jin Yihong, 'Wenge shiqi zhongguo funü de laodong', paper delivered at the Nanjing University Sociology Conference, Nanjing, China, April 2003.
5. Jiang Yongping, 'Wushi nian zhongguo chengshi funü de jiuye huigu yu fansi', in Li Qiufang (ed.), Bange Shiji de funü fazhan - zhongguo funü 50 nian lilun yantaohui lunwenji (Beijing: Modern China Press, 2001), pp. 152-62, here pp. 152-7.
6. The ensuing list provides a sense of the nature of the 8 March editorial headlines in Renmin ribao for the years prior to and following the Cultural Revolution: 'All Chinese Women Are Mobilising in the Glorious Struggle to Participate in the Construction of Socialism and the Socialist Motherland, to Liberate Taiwan and to Safeguard Peace' (1955); 'Give Entirely Free Rein to Women's Great Role in the Construction of Socialism' (1956); 'Give Even Greater Rein to the Enthusiasm of the Women Masses for Socialism' (1957); 'The Emergence of the Very Best Women in Various Occupations' (1958); 'Women, Summon Your Towering Passion and Energy to Make a Greater Contribution!' (1959); 'The New Stage in the Women's Liberation Movement in Our Country' (1960); 'Women, Exert Greater Force in the Contribution to This Year's Harvest' (1961); 'Carry out Woman-work with Greater Conscientiousness, Thoroughness and Meticulousness' (1962); 'Women, Struggle in Order to Achieve New Victories' (1963); 'Women, Make Full Use of the Revolutionary Spirit in Order to Achieve New Victories' (1964); 'To Commemorate the "8 March" InternationalWomen's Day, Build Up Revolutionary Ambitions and Endure Difficult, Exacting Training to Master Strong Ability' (1965); 'Give Greater Prominence to Politics, Further Play Women's Great Role' (1966); 'AllWomen AreMobilised' (1974); 'AHoliday for the Glorious Struggle of theWorld's Women' (1980 - the theme is to mobilise women to strive to realise the 'Four Modernisations', namely the modernisation of industry, agriculture, science and education as well as national defence); 'The Whole Society Must Pay Attention to and Be Concerned about Women and Children' (1981); 'Give Full Play to the Role ofWomen in the Construction of the Two Civilisations' (1982). There were no 8 March Editorials from 1967-73 or 1975-79.
7. Mao Zedong, 'Zhonghua suweiai gongheguo renmin weiyuanhui xunling di liu hao - guanyu baohu funü quanli yu jianli funü shenghuo gaishan weiyuanhui de zuzhi he gongzuo' (20 June 1932; repr. Renmin ribao, 22 September 1977, as quoted in the brochure Mao Zedong zhuxi lun funü (Beijing: People's Press, 1978, pp. 4-5).
8. 'Dashu geming xiongxin, kulian guoying benling - jinian sanba guoji funüjie', editorial, Renmin ribao, 8 March 1965, p. 1.
9. Renmin ribao, 8 March 1974, p. 1 (upper right-hand corner of the page).
10. See, e.g., Tan Houlan (from the Jing Gangshan Commune in Beijing Normal University), 'Posi ligong, zuo chedi de wuchan jieji geming pai', Renmin ribao, 8 March 1967, p. 2; Guo Fenglian, 'Geming dang chuangjiang, shengchan da xianfeng', Renmin ribao, 11 March 1967, p. 3; 'Guangda funü jiji touru pilin pikong de douzheng', Renmin ribao, 7 March 1974, p. 2; ZhouKezhou (Vice Secretary of the Xiao Jinzhuang Committee of the CCP), Yu Fang (Director of the Xiao Jinzhuang women's brigade), Wang Yangrong (a female peasant soldier or militia-woman), and Wei Yongjuan (a female peasant soldier or militia-woman), 'Xiao Jinzhuang funü fanji youqing fananfeng zhange', Renmin ribao, 7 March 1976, p. 6; Beijing funü lianhe hui [BeijingWomen's Association], 'Funü gongzuo bixu jianchi yi jieji douzheng weigang', Renmin ribao, 7 March 1976, p. 3.
11. 'Yichang bianlunhui zhihou', Renmin ribao, 6 March 1972, p. 3.
12. Song Liansheng, Nongye xue Dazhai (Wuhan: Hubei People's Press, 2005), p. 168.
13. E.g., there was the slogan of 'going all out for the "Four Modernisations"'. Calling on people to try their best to modernise China, this political mobilisation discourse prevailed particularly in the 1980s. The 'Four Selves' education refers to 'large-scale educational activities involving all Chinese women' organised by the All-China Women's Federation. When first put forward in 1983, the 'Four Selves' meant 'selfpride, self-love, self-respect and self-endeavour'. At the Sixth National Conference of Chinese Women's Representatives in 1988, it was changed to 'self-pride, self-confidence, self-support and self-endeavour'. Although only two words were replaced, the meaning of the whole phrase became much more profound.
14. About twenty years into the Song Dynasty (960-1279),Mu Guiying, by then over fifty years old, led twelve widows from the Yang family (its deceased male members had been famous for their military prowess) to fight against the rebellion of the King of Xixia, a small kingdom to the west of Song; she won the battle and protected the country. There is some dispute as to when and where Hua Mulan lived, and even as to whether this was her real name, but it is generally agreed upon that she donned men's garb, joined the army on behalf of her father (who was too old to fight), and during twelve years of glorious accomplishments on the battlefield, thwarted an invasion by Xiongnu, a people situated to the north of China. It is noteworthy that both of these women could demonstrate their military skills only in the absence of male power or via cross-dressing.
15. During the Cultural Revolution the petroleum industry also rewarded advanced women with honorific titles such as the 'Iron Woman', a replication of the 'Iron Man' Wang Jinxi, but the title was not as popular as the 'Iron Girl'.
16. My investigation of more than fifty activists from the Cultural Revolution shows that most participated in organisations such as 'TheYouth Squad', 'The Policy Education Brigade' and 'The Brigade for Democratising Literature and Art'. This reflects the relatively high degree of organisation at the rural grassroots level. However, organisations like the Iron Girl brigade were very rare in the countryside and even less prevalent in urban areas.
17. Xuanhuaxian geming weiyuanhui diaocha zu [Investigation Group of the Revolutionary Committee of Xuanhua County], 'Zenyang shixian nannü tonggong tongchou - Hebei xuanhuaxian chenjiafang dadui de diaocha baogao', Hongqi 3 (1972), pp. 89-94; Jin Jizu and Hong Ge, 'Nannüü tonggong yao tongchou - ping nongcun fenpei wenti shangde yizhong cuowu qingxiang', Hongqi 2 (1972), pp. 59-63, here p. 59; Qidongxian geming weiyuanhui [Revolutionary Committee of Qidong County], 'Genghao fahui funü laodongli de zuoyong - Jiangsu qidongxian lüsi gongshe shi dadui diaocha baogao', Hongqi 3 (1973), pp. 43-5; 'Saochu sixiang aizhang' and 'Yichang bianlunhui zhihou', Renmin ribao, 6 March 1972, p. 3 and 'Funü dou dongyuan qilai: jinian sanba guoji laodong funüjie', editorial, Renmin ribao, 6 March 1974, p. 1.
18. In regard to the policy of 'men first,women second' in the transfer of the rural labour force to non-agricultural sectors, see Jin Yihong, 'Fei nonghua guochengzhong de nongcun funü', Shehuixue yanjiu 5 (1998), pp. 106-14.
19. The Investigation Group of the Revolutionary Committee of Lanxi County, 'Nongcun funü shi juda de geming liliang', Hongqi 10 (1969), pp. 76-8.
20. Jin and Hong, 'Nannü tonggong yao tongchou', p. 59.
21. Yu Zhu (pseudonym for the former head of the 8 March Women's Transportation Brigade in the Nanjing Harbour Bureau) as part of a group interview with six former members of the 8 March Women''s Transportation Brigade in the Nanjing Harbour Bureau, interview with the author, 14 September 1998. All of the interview transcripts that are cited in this article are in the author's possession.
22. Lian Ying (pseudonym for director of the Women's Department of the Labour Union at the Shengli Oil Field), interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
23. Lian Ying, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
24. In the era of the planned economy, labour departments had to consider the ratio between men and women in a workplace so that workers would not have difficulty in finding a spouse. For example, when sending educated youth to the countryside in 1968, Beijing municipal authorities often allocated students from both a male school and a female one to the same 'Educated Youth Camp'.
25. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
26. Xiao Wei (pseudonym for the former head of the 8 MarchWomen's Transportation Brigade in the Nanjing Harbour Bureau), interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
27. Li Jing (pseudonym for the former vice-director of a women's brigade at the Shengli Oil Field), interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
28. Gu Yingzhen (pseudonym for the former leader of the Iron Girl brigade in Shuang Zha Township, Nanjing), interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
29. Yue Mei (pseudonym for the former chair of the sub-union of office workers at the Shengli Oil Field), Lian Ying and Zhu Jichen (pseudonym for the male advisor of the former women's specialised brigade at the Shengli Oil Field), interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
30. Xinhuashe [Xinhua News Agency], 'Daidian zuoye riqu wanshan', Renmin ribao, 24 September 1973, p. 2.
31. Six former members of the 8 March Women's Transportation Brigade in the Nanjing Harbour Bureau, group interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
32. Former members of the Nanjing Suburban Iron Girl brigade, interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
33. Former members of the women's specialised brigade at the Shengli Oil Field, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001. 34. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
34. Li Jing, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
35. Li Jing, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
36. Lian Ying, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
37. Luo Qiong, 'Quanguo fulian shujichu xiang disijie changwei dierci kuoda huiyi de gongzuo huibao' (22 March 1979), in All-China Women's Federation (ed.), Sida yilai funü yundong wenxuan 1979-1983, vol. 1 (Beijing: China Women's Press, 1983), pp. 195-208, here p. 198.
38. Kang Keqing, 'Tan diaodong nongcun funv jijixing, guanche luoshi nannü tonggong tongchou zhengce, cong shiji chufa qiadang anpai nülaoli, yong wenhua keji zhishi wuzhuang guangda funüü, heli tiaozheng mouxie zhuanyedui', Renmin ribao, 7 March 1979, p. 1.
39. For example, Jiang Kun's comics 'praised' Iron Girls in the following way: 'Our Brigade has an Iron Girl, with iron hands, iron feet and iron shoulders. When she makes a fist, it crackles; when she takes a step, it thunders. A blow from her fist can shatter the mountain'. See Zhang Yue, 'Liujing jiyi shenchu de dianying yinyue', available at >http://www.sina.com.cn<, accessed 18 November 2004.
40. Han Shaogong, Anshi (Beijing: People's Literature Press, 2002), p. 11.
41. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
42. Xiao Wei, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
43. Li Jing, interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
44. Shu Qin (pseudonym for the director of the women's brigade at the Shengli Oil Field), interview with the author, 11-16 April 2001.
45. Gu Yingzhen, interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
46. Xu Xiuwen (pseudonym), interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
47. Hechi zhuanqu geming weiyuanhui, Huanjiangxian geming weiyuanhui lianhe diaochazu [Joint Investigation Group of the Revolutionary Committee of Hechi Special Region and the Revolutionary Committee of Huanjiang County], 'Geming funü yizhi jian - Guangxi Huanjiangxian Tongjin dadui de diaocha baogao', Hongqi 2 (1971), pp. 66-71, here p. 71.
48. Liu Jiang and Xu Renjie, '"Tie guniang" Guo Fenglian de nüxing jiazhi guan', Xinhuashe, Beijing, 7March 2003.
49. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
50. Xiao Wei, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
51. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
52. Xiao Wei, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
53. These reforms, undertaken by the CCP and the Chinese government, gradually turned the planned economic system into a free-market economy. One of the major effects of these reforms has been the restratification of society with the emergence of new social categories such as manager, private entrepreneur and peasant worker.
54. Xiao Wei, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
55. Zhang Lan (pseudonym), interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
56. In 2004 Guo Fenglian remarked that the former Iron Girls in Dazhai 'did not end up with a satisfying future. Some of them were married off in remote villages where they live in poverty'. See 'Da Zhai Iron Girls Recalling the Past with the Chairman', available at >http://www.jrnb.rednet.com.cn<, accessed 25 May 2004.
57. Li Shinian, 'Zai tieguniangban de rizi', Yangzi wanbao, 26 January 2002, p. 36.
58. Li Yinhe, Nüxing zhuyi (Jinan: Shandong People's Press, 2005), p. 128.
59. Wen Xuying (pseudonymn for the retired Women's Federation leader), interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
60. Former members of the Nanjing Suburban Iron Girl brigade, interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
61. The Writing Group of the CCP's Hunan Committee, 'Chongfen fahui funü zai geming yu jianshe zhongde zuoyong', Hongqi 2 (1971), pp. 60-64.
62. 'Zuo yishi xingtai lingyu geming de xianjin zhanshi - Ji Ma Jimin funü zhimianzu zai pilin pikong yundongzhong qianjin de shiji', Renmin ribao, 19 September 1974.
63. At first, the women in the Nanjing Suburban Iron Girl brigade could earn only four or six work points per day. But they averred, 'we don't care. We are working for socialism... We devote ourselves selflessly'. Former members of the Nanjing Suburban Iron Girl brigade, interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
64. Yan Hairong, 'Xukong de nongcun he kongxue de zhuti', Dushu 7 (2005), pp. 74-83, here p. 76.
65. Former members of the Nanjing Suburban Iron Girl brigade, interview with the author, 6 May 1997.
66. Han Qilan [Emily Honig], 'Kuayue xingbie fenjie: "wenge" shiqi de tieguniang xingxiang yu zhiqing', in Wang Zheng and Chen Yan (eds), Bainian zhongguo nüquan sichao yanjiu (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2005), pp. 245-84, here p. 245.
67. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
68. Yu Zhu, interview with the author, 14 September 1998.
69. When interviewed, many rural women activists mentioned how they 'overcame' the difficulty of handling their heavy household chores; some locked their children at home, while others took them to the fields. More details and analysis can be found in Jin Yihong, 'Chûgoku yôchien takujisho jigyô no hatten to josei undô oyobi yûshoku no hahaoya', in Nakata Teruko (ed.), Kokusai hikaku: Hataraku fubo no seikatsu jikan - ikuji kyûgyô to hoikujo (Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobô, 2005), pp. 233-64.
70. Li, Nüxing zhuyi, p. 129.
71. Most women who joined the Iron Girl brigades during the Cultural Revolution were from the lower echelons of society and had to perform heavy physical labour. When the educated female 'sent-down youth' were 're-educated', they also engaged in heavy manual labour. Women have not been encouraged in the same way to insist that 'men and women are the same' in politics, management or technological fields.