Nationalist and feminist discourses on Jianmei (Robust Beauty) during China's 'National Crisis' in the 1930s

Gender and History

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 546-573

  Gao, Yunxiang ^a  

^a RYERSON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CRISIS MANAGEMENT; FEMINISM; GENDER ISSUE; SOCIAL HISTORY;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 34147160316     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2006.00457.x     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. For example, Chinese women's bound feet once symbolised Chinese masculine power and control through related patriarchal values such as erotic sexuality, dependence and obedience. In imperialist narratives, victimised, footbound women were transformed into a symbol of the backwardness and barbarity of the already effeminate 'Sick Man of Asia'. For subtle values and meanings involved in footbinding, see Dorothy Ko, Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).
2. When Western 'sport', 'physical education' and 'physical culture' were translated into Chinese as tiyu, their imported meanings were adapted to local understandings and needs within institutional discourse in the national context of state-building. Therefore, when tiyu finally gained fixed meaning during the 'national crisis', it involved not only Western sport, physical education and physical culture stressing hygienic therapies, but also ancient and folk forms of Chinese physical activities such as martial arts, strategic chess, qigong, mountain climbing, boating and military activities. For more discussion of tiyu, see Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People's Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 16-17;
3. Prasenjit Duara, 'The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness, Gender, and National History in Modern China', History and Theory 37 (1998), pp. 287-308.
4. Prasenjit Duara, Sovereignty and Authenticity: Manchukuo and the East Asian Modern (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), p. 142.
5. Duara, Sovereignty and Authenticity, p. 152.
6. Zhonghua Minguo ershier nian quanguo yundong dahui zongbaogao shu (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1934), Section 2, pp. 3-4.
7. Life reformers disagreed on the means to achieve a healthy and beautiful physique. Some condemned competitive sport as one-sided and only focused on physical culture. See Julia L. Foulkes, Modern Bodies: Dance and American Modernism from Martha Graham to Alvin Ailey (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), pp. 86, 206, n. 65;
8. See Hau, Cult of Life and Beauty in Germany, pp. 1-3, 4-8, 32, 199, 201-2;
9. John Bale and Chris Philo, 'Introduction: Henning Eichberg, Space, Identity, and Body Culture', in Bale and Philo (eds), Body Cultures, pp. 5, 8.
10. Fan Hong, Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom: The Liberation of Women's Bodies in Modern China (London: Frank Cass, 1997);
11. Duara, Sovereignty and Authenticity, pp. 133, 141.
12. Hau, Cult of Life and Beauty in Germany, pp. 2, 178; Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality, p. 10.
13. Leo Ou-Fan Lee, Shanghai Modern: The Flowering of a New Urban Culture in China 1930-1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 64, 67.
14. The thirteen in Shanghai included Women's Daily, the weekly Linglong, biweekly Women's Voice and Women's Pictorial, the monthly Women (Nüzi), Modern Women (Xiandai funü), Women Youth (Nüqingnian), N̈duo, New Family and Modern Parents, Woman and Family, a periodic supplement to the daily Morning News (Chenbao), the weekly Modern Domestic Affairs supplement to Xinbao and the 'Woman and Family' column in Oriental Magazine (Dongfang zazhi). The four in Beiping included New Women (Xin funü), a periodic supplement to North China Daily, the weekly Women and Youth (Funü qingnian) in the daily Morning News (Chenbao), Women Weekly (Funü zhoukan), a supplement to World Daily (Shijie ribao), and the weekly Family Paradise, a supplement to the Morning News. The two in Hong Kong included the monthly ModernWomen (Dangdai funü) and Women's Weekly, a supplement to Oriental Daily. Nanjing had the monthlyWomen's Shared Voice (Funü gongming), Hangzhou had the every-ten-day Funü xunkan, Zhengzhou had Women's Weekly, a supplement to Zhengzhou Daily, and Tianjin had the weekly Family. Linglong 100, 21 June 1933, p. 964.
15. Linglong 58, 13 July 1932, p. 375.
16. Linglong 94, 10 May 1933, pp. 574, 602-3.
17. Linglong 128, 17 January 1934, pp. 157-64.
18. Linglong 186, 5 June 1935, pp. 1295, 1274. The company headquarters enjoyed a prestigious address at 56 Nanjing Road, Shanghai.
19. The estimated monthly social expenses including movies for an average dance hostess in Shanghai was twenty Chinese yuan. One yuan equalled 100 copper coins. This confirms Lee's assertion that books in the 1920s and 1930s were relatively cheap in order to promote new culture and education for those who could not afford to go to school. Lee, Shanghai Modern, pp. 27, 47.
20. 'Benshe qishi', Linglong 234, 29 April 1936, pp.1224-5; 232, 24 June 1936, pp. 1056-7.
21. 'Bianji zhe yan', Linglong 196, 7 October 1935, p. 1985. The famous writer Zhang Ailing (Eileen Chang) stated that every female student in the 1930s read Linglong. Zhang Ailing, 'Tan nüren', in Zhang Ailing dianchang wenji (Harbin: Harbin Publishing House, 2005), vol. 4, p. 64.
22. 'Yi jiu san qi nian dui funüjie de xiwang', Linglong 268, 6 January 1937, pp. 5-8.
23. The term nüquan (women's rights/power) first entered public discourse when reformers began to address the 'women problem' for national strengthening after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese war in 1895. See Mizuyo Sudo's article in this volume. In the May Fourth period (1915-25), Chinese terms including nüzi zhuyi (female-ism), nüxing zhuyi (feminine-ism), funü zhuyi (womanism), nüquan zhuyi (the ism of women's rights) and fumineishimu (feminism) appeared to 'grasp the complexity of Western feminism'. Wang Zheng, 'Feminism: China', in Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender (eds), Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge, vol. 2 (New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 736-7.
24. Linglong 81, 11 January 1933, p. 22.
25. Nora became a familiar symbolic figure after Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House was translated into Chinese in the May Fourth Movement as part of the discussion of 'women's questions'.
26. 'Guoji funü menhu kaifang liangmeng dahui', Linglong 133, 21 March 1934, pp. 455-6; 'Xianqi liangmu de xinxing', Linglong 159, 31 October 1934, pp. 2163-6; 'Shijie funü de eyun', Linglong 182, 8 May 1935, pp. 905-6; Pingzi, 'Deguo xianqi liangmu xunlian shuo', Linglong 283, 28 April 1937, pp. 1270-72; Shi Minyu, 'Xitele dui deguo funü de qiwang', Linglong 128, 17 January 1934, pp. 131-4; 'Ducai xia de funü', Linglong 148, 25 July 1934, pp. 1451-2.
27. Linglong 104, 26 July 1933, p. 1216.
28. Moli, 'Yundong yu Zhongguo', Linglong 1, 18 March 1931, pp. 24-5; 41, 22 December 1931, p. 1631; 58, 13 July 1932, pp. 360-61; 61, 3 August 1932, p. 527; 78, 14 December 1932, p. 1326; 88, 22 March 1933, pp. 362-3; 89, 29 March 1933, pp. 308-9. 41 22 December 1931, p. 1631; 58, 13 July 1932, pp. 360-61; 61, 3 August 1932, p. 527; 78, 14 December 1932, p. 1326; 88, 22 March 1933, pp. 362-3; 89, 29.
29. See Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality, pp. 48, 50-53, 139, illustration 16 between pp. 96-7.
30. Linglong 29, 30 September 1931, pp. 1076-7; 35, 11 November 1931, p. 1368; 183, 15 May 1935, pp. 997-9; 191, 3 July 1935, p. 1527.
31. 'Mosuolini chang jianmei', Linglong 91, 12 April 1933, p. 405. See also Mosse, Image of Man, p. 95; Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality, pp. 48-65 on the integration of the cult of the physique into Nazi and Fascist ideology.
32. Whether Mussolini and Garbo had actually made these remarks is beside the point. What is significant here is the way the Linglong writers used the influential Western figures in their efforts to popularise the translated concept of jianmei.
33. Linglong 10, 20 May 1931, pp. 352, 359; 27, 15 September 1931, p. 1011; 52, 2 June 1932, p. 77; 62, 10 August 1932, pp. 552-3; 67, 14 September 1932, p. 797; 'Nü yundong jia de mingxing', Linglong 102, 12 July 1933, p. 1134; 148, 25 July 1934, pp. 1484, 1494; 162, 28 November 1934, p. 2398; 172, 20 February 1935, pp. 352-3; 183, 15 May 1935, pp. 997-8; 'Shijie biaozhun meiren zhaoxing', Linglong 168, 16 January 1935, pp. 98-9; 'Gelantai Jiabao de huazhuang tan', Linglong 264, 1936, pp. 3683-4; 'Jianshen yundong', Linglong 283, 28 April 1937, pp. 1205-6.
34. Hau, Cult of Life and Beauty in Germany, pp. 6-7, 32-44, 183.
35. 'Jianmei de biaozhun', Linglong 74, 16 November 1932, p. 1112.
36. 'Weilai zhi guoji biaozhun meiren', Linglong 150, 15 August 1934, p. 1589.
37. 'Yi jiu san liu nian de tiaojie', Linglong 196, 7 October 1935, pp. 1941-2.
38. Linglong 181, 1 May 1935, p. 846.
39. Linglong 39, 9 December 1931, p. 1534; 'Biaozhun de tige', Linglong 229, 10 June 1936, p. 805-6; 'Shaonü men de qieshen wenti, zhenyang shi shenti jianmei', Linglong 136, 11 April 1934, pp. 645-7.
40. None of the five female athletes who participated in the Berlin Olympics in 1936 was taller than 1.60 m or weighed more than 55 kilos. It was argued that the 'disadvantage in natural physique', in addition to 'inactive advocacy, incomplete measures and poor organisation' were attributed to 'the limitation that only two women participated [in competition], and they did not win anything'. Li Sen (1.58m, 55kg), Yang Xiuqiong (1.57m, 52kg), Zhai Lianyuan (1.56m, 53kg), Fu Shunyun (1.60m, 54kg), Liu Yuhua (1.55m, 54kg). Zhonghua tiyu xiejing hui [China National Amateur Athletic Federation] (ed.), Chuxi di shiyi jie shijie yundong hui Zhonghua daibiao tuan baogao (Shanghai: 1937), part 1, pp. 56-8. Linling, 'Canjia shijie yundong hui tandao woguo nüzi tiyu shifou jinbu', Linglong 262, 18 November 1936, pp. 3488-9.
41. In photographs of short-hairedwomen leaping over hurdles, the camera focused on their well-muscled legs. At the finish line one sees the dashing winner's outstretched arms and twisted, gasping facial expression. In the javelin and shot-put competition, images depicted the power of muscles with the body leaning far backwards. Photos singled out individual ball players for their aggressive gestures under the label jianjiang (robust athletes). High-jumpers going over the pole were shot from above with the audience, dwarfed, on the other side looking up into the sky at the athletes. Linglong 28, 23 September 1931, p. 1028; 52, 1 June 1932, 76; 85, 15 February 1933, pp. 216-17; 94, 10 May 1933, p. 601; 168, 16 January 1935, pp. 96-7; 189, 26 June 1935, p. 1399; 217, 1935, p. 4223.
42. Linglong 51, 25 June 1932, pp. 24-5; 56, 29 June 1932, p. 265; 61, 3 August 1932, p. 508; 95, 17 May 1933, pp. 662-3; 159, 31 October 1934, pp. 2192-3.
43. Linglong 28, 23 September 1931, pp. 1018, 1024, 1026, 1047; 72, 26 October 1932, pp. 1032-3; 94, 10 May 1933, p. 604; 127, 10 January 1934, p. 84; 135, 4 April 1934, p. 578; 145, 25 April 1934, p. 1252; 161, 21 November 1934, pp. 2318-19; 168, 16 January 1935, pp. 96-7; 186, 5 June 1935, pp. 1238-9; 189, 26 June 1935, pp. 1398-9; 242, 24 June 1936, p. 1839.
44. Linglong 63, 17 August 1932, p. 599; 97, 31 May 1933, p. 780; 89, 29 March 1933, p. 307; 101, 5 July 1933, p. 1041; 134, 18 March 1934, p. 543; 161, 21 November 1934, pp. 2318-19; 169, 23 January 1935, p. 158; 172, 20 February 1935, p. 322; 174, 6 March 1935, p. 450; 171, 6 February 1935, p. 276; 173, 27 February 1935, p. 415; 177, 27 March 1935, p. 662; 182, 8 May 1935, p. 912; 194, 24 July 1935, p. 1767; 284, 5May 1937, p. 1302. For qipao, see Antonia Finanne, 'What Should ChineseWomenWear? A National Problem', in Antonia Finanne and Anne McLaren (eds), Dress, Sex and Text in Chinese Culture (Clayton, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 1999), pp. 3-36.
45. Linglong 71, 19 October 1932, p. 1006.
46. Cao Xueqin (1717-63), Honglou meng.
47. Zhenling, 'Xiandai nanzi dui nüxing mei muguang zhi zhuanyi', Linglong 95, 17 May 1933, pp. 635-7.
48. Quanyunhui teji (Shanghai: Tiyu shenghuo chuban she, 1948), p. 56. Miss Peifang, 'Xin nüxing de liangda xunlian', Linglong 76, 30 November 1932, pp. 1203-4. Feisi, 'Zhe shidao xuyao na yi zhong nüxing?' Linglong 259, 28 October 1936, pp. 3256-8.
49. Zhu Yaoxian, 'Cong nüzi tiyu kandao nvzi jianglai de mingyun', Linglong 94, 10 May 1933, pp. 575-6; Shen Yixiang, 'Xiandai funü heyi bi congqian funü haokan', Linglong 25, 2 September 1931, pp. 901-2.
50. 'Mianbu taishou bujiu fa', Linglong 104, 26 July 1933, p. 1216; 'Shaonü men de gieshen wenti, zenyang shi shenti jianmei', Linglong 136, 11 April 1934, pp. 645-7.
51. Zhenling, 'Xiandai nanzi dui nüxing mei muguang zhi zhuanyi', Linglong 95, 17 May 1933, pp. 635-7; 'Haolaiwu nüxing de jianshen meirong shu', Linglong 148, 25 July 1934, p. 1489.
52. See Gao, 'Sports, Gender, and Nation-State', pp. 307-10 for the rich literature discussing jianmei of specific parts of the female body by Linglong's male and female readers and editors.
53. Zhang Guiqin, 'Wo de jianshen shu', Linglong 7, 29 April 1931, pp. 221-2; Ping'er, 'Jiaozheng zitai', Linglong 30, 10 October 1931, p. 1152; 25, 2 September 1931, pp. 927-9; Miss LiuMeiying, 'Jianbian de jianshen shu', 29, 30 September 1931, p. 1073; 'Weisheng guicheng', Linglong 59, 20 July 1932, p. 399; Aimei, 'Huanfei yanshou ruhe shizhong', Linglong 232, 24 June 1936, pp. 1051-3; Miss ShiYunfang, 'Tan jianmei de tujing', Linglong 241, 17 June 1936, pp. 1734-7; 'Jianbian er youxiao de jianmei fa', Linglong 258, 21 October 1936, pp. 3203-4; Miss Liuying, 'Shouren zeng fei fa', Linglong 261, 11 November 1936, pp. 3443-7.
54. Linglong 42, 1 January 1932, p. 1652; 43, 13 January 1932, p. 1719; 50, 18 May 1932, p. 2054; 73, 9 November 1932, p. 1058.
55. Linglong 40, 16 December 1931, p. 1580; 68, 21 September 1932, p. 841; 137, 18 April 1934, p. 733; 145, 25 April 1934, p. 1250; 179, 10 April 1935, p. 728.
56. Linglong 39, 9 December 1931, p. 1530; 151, 29 August 1934, p. 1684; 182, 8 May 1935, p. 921; 184, 22 May 1935, cover.
57. He Jing'an, 'Funü caiyi shi ying zhuyi zhi yaodian', Linglong 192, 3 July 1935, p. 1619.
58. Linglong 43, 21 November 1932, p. 1724; 51, 25 May 1932, p. 23; 61, 3 August 1932, p. 507; 66, 7 September 1932, p. 767; 68, 21 September 1932, p. 845; 69, 5 October 1932, p. 894; 78, 14 December 1932, p. 1323; 100, 21 June 1933, p. 974; 107, 23 August 1933, p. 1442; 155, 3 October 1934, p. 1967; 174, 6 March 1935, pp. 480-81.
59. In 1935, the Film Star Photograph Company (Yingxing zhaopian she), based in central Shanghai, released a special jianmei issue for its mass circulation series, Album of Stars, with each volume selling for 0.2 yuan. The issue included not only well-known younger jianmei stars who were once trained in song and dance troupes, but also older stars who had never revealed their skin. This showed how much jianmei had become a generally appealing quality for Chinese cinema stars to possess. Linglong 189, 26 June 1935, p. 1444.
60. Hu Die nüshi xiezhen ji, vol. 12 (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu yinshua gongsi, 1933), p. 8; Li Lili, Xingyun liushui pian (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2001), p. 168.
61. Linglong 127, 10 January 1934, p. 123.
62. Lee, Shanghai Modern, pp. 46, 63.
63. Lee, Shanghai Modern, pp. 65, 74.
64. 'Guangzhou xuanju datui meiren', Linglong 198, 21 October 1935, p. 2042.
65. 'Xuanju Shanghai xiaojie', Linglong 198, 21 August 1935, p. 2074.
66. E.g., the Nationalists considered Communism, the original target of the New Life Movement, illegitimate on the grounds that the physical appearances of Communist women did not fit into state codes. After the split between the Nationalist Party and the Communist Party in 1927, Nationalist Party forces killed thousands of 'modern' women because they were accused of 'free love', or sometimes simply because they had bobbed hair, unbound feet or a local reputation for opposing familial authority. When the actress Li Lili travelled across Shaanxi to Inner Mongolia to make a movie in 1940, she was told that some footbound women with heavy makeup dancing on the streets in Xi'an were Communists. Duara, Sovereignty and Authenticity, p. 137; Li, Xingyun liushui pian, pp. 114, 119.
67. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'an guan (ed.), Zhonghua Minguo shi dang'an ziliao huibian, vol. 5, no. 1: Wen Huan [Culture] 2 (Nangjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1991), p. 930.
68. 'Nüzi shouruo de yuanyin', Linglong 137, 18 April 1934, pp. 727-8; Zhaoliang, 'Cong chanzu shuodao luozu', Linglong 151, 29 August 1934, pp. 1654-6; 'Shanghai nüzhong qudi nüsheng shuru', Linglong 206, 9 October 1935, pp. 3393-4; 'Gaogeng xie de haichu', Linglong 234, 1936, p. 1215. 727-8; Zhaoliang, 'Cong chanzu shuodao luozu', Linglong 151, 29 August 1934, pp. 1654-6; 'Shanghai nüzhong qudi nüsheng shuru', Linglong 206, 9 October 1935, pp. 3393-4; 'Gaogeng xie de haichu', Linglong 234, 1936, p. 1215.
69. The tabloids rumoured that Huang had dressed inappropriately to attract newspaper attention and promote her film, which was to be shown in Chongqing. See 'Huang Jing yixiang tiankai de xuanchuan fangfa', Diansheng, 19 June 1936, p. 590.
70. 'Funü yu xufa yundong', Linglong 171, 6 February 1935, pp. 259-60; 'Xin shenghuo yundong zhi funü xufa yundong', Linglong 171, 6 February 1935, pp. 306-7; 'Qudi funü shimao fuzhuang', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 157-8.
71. 'Xu Lai wei modeng pohuai', Linglong 136, 11 April 1934, p. 700.William C. Kirby, 'The Internationalization of China: Foreign Relations at Home and Abroad in the Republican China', in FredericWakeman Jr and Richard L. Edmonds (eds), Reappraising Republican China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 179-204, here pp. 190, 195, suggests that Chinese young men's militarist organisations such as the Blue Shirt Society (resembling the Italian Blackshirts) played an important role in the New Life Movement, which combined Confucianism with Fascism. It seems that the 'modern fashion destruction troupes' were inspired by the Blue Shirt Society.
72. Similarly, popular hygiene literature of the European life reform movement doubted the legitimacy of cosmetics and cosmetic surgery as contradictory to a person's real character. Hau, Cult of Life and Beauty in Germany, p. 180.
73. Cao Xiulin, 'Xin nüzi ying you zhi zhunbei', Linglong 3, 1 April 1931, p. 79; 4, 8 April 1931, p. 124; Zhiying, 'Yao xian mei de liliang', Linglong 3, 1 April 1931, pp. 89-91; Miss Xiuling, 'Nü yundong jia zhuji', Linglong 50, 18 May 1932, pp. 2074-5; Li Mingxia, 'Zuo yiwei xiandai nüzi', Linglong 196, 7 August 1935, pp. 1911-12.
74. As a common style of dress, qipao can be categorised as either 'fancy' and 'bizarre dress' incompatible with jianmei or plain clothing consistent with jianmei based on fabric, cut and decorations. Karl Gerth, China Made: Consumer Culture and the Creation of the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 22, suggests that 'the conditions of production rather than the national origins of the style or type of good defined product-nationality'. For comments on German opposition to women's fashion associated with corrupt, artificial urban life, see Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality, p. 55.
75. Qiong, 'Tan Deguo jin nüzi tu zhifen', Linglong 107, 23 August 1933, pp. 1399-1401; Jiang xinlang, 'Fufen ye shi yishu', Linglong 3, 1 April 1931, p. 91; Miss Yunfang, ''Fufen fengchao: Wo guo jiaoyu jie youwu ganxiang', Linglong 13, 10 June 1931, p. 443; 'Xuefu bianwei zhifen chang', Linglong 130, 31 January 1934, p. 263; Huasheng, 'Cong Deguo de weisheng fuzhuang yundong tandao Zhongguo shimao funü de yanghua', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 167-9.
76. Chen Mulan, 'Tan funü yu shechi ping', Linglong 240, 10 June 1936, pp. 1669-71.
77. Lian, 'Zai guoshi weidai zhong, xin nüxing yinggai zenyang', Linglong 260, 4 November 1936, pp. 3328-30.
78. Gail Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 246-70, suggests that, since late Qing, nationalist and feminist writers linked prostitution with national weakness and the quest for modernity. It was more explicit during the 'national crisis'.
79. 'Changsha jinü pei taozhang', Linglong 173, 27 February 1935, p. 445; "Taiyuan fandui jinüü tangfa gelü', Linglong 184, 22 May 1935, pp. 1131-2; 'Taiyuan jinü shixing tangfa he chuan gaogeng xie', Linglong 185, 29 May 1935, p. 1210; 'Hankou jiang huading changji qu', Linglong 191, 3 July 1935, p. 1574; 'Qudi funü shimao fuzhuang', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 157-8; 'Guangdong funü buyong toujin', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 186-7.
80. 'Nanbei ji', Linglong 153, 19 September 1934, p. 1805.
81. 'Riben yiji he nü zhaodai yiqi jiaru guofang yundong', Linglong 283, 28 April 1937, pp. 1225-6.
82. As part of the efforts to embrace a new modest image, they tried to learn modern, socially relevant plays (huaju) in addition to the traditional pingju romances. 'Guanyu shoudu genü de xunlian', Linglong 240, 10 June 1936, pp. 1645-6; 'Shoudu jinü zhi jinbu', Linglong 137, 18 April 1934, p. 726.
83. 'Zhenjiang zhuzhi jiaofang nüzi minzhong xueshe miaowen', Linglong 190, 26 June 1935, pp. 1525-6.
84. 'Taiyuan fandui jinü tangfa gelu', Linglong 184, 22 May 1935, pp. 1131-2.
85. 'Qudi funü shimao fuzhuang', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 157-8; 'Zhenjiang zhuzhi jiaofang nüzi minzhong xueshe miaowen', Linglong 189, 26 June 1935, p. 1526.
86. 'Funü yu xufa yundong', Linglong 171, 6 February 1935, pp. 259-60; Pengzi, 'Zhengqi tangfa zai Hangzhou', Linglong 221, 1936, p. 184.
87. Pingzi, 'Qudi nanzi qizhuang yifu', Linglong 158, 24 October 1934, pp. 2101-3; 'Nannü luti fa zuo kugong', Linglong 197, 14 August 1935, pp. 2061-2.
88. Several telegrams from Beijing appealed to the Department of Education to stop Mayor Yuan Liang's ban on co-education, in order to protect equality in education. At the same time, the head of the Henan Education Bureau announced that the bureau would combine girls' and boys' middle schools in 1935, in order to save money and develop general education. Ni, 'Biekai shengmian de jinling', Linglong 151, 29 August 1934, pp. 1651-3, 1709; ''Pingshi choushe nüzi gongyu', Linglong 191, 3 July 1935, p. 1572; 'Nannü luoti youyong', Linglong 191, 3 July 1935, p. 1573; 'Yu shixing nannü tongxue', Linglong 198, 21 October 1935, p. 2143.
89. Jingzi, 'Waiguo zuojia de Zhongguo nüxing guan', Linglong 194, 24 July 1935, pp. 1760-62.
90. 'Jinzhi luozu sheng zhong yi fansheng', Linglong 151, 29 August 1934, pp. 1664-5, 1709; Linjun, 'Qudi funü luotui', Linglong 152, 20 September 1934, pp. 1715-16; Miss Liu Mei, 'Shehui fugu qingxiang zhong funü ying you de zijue', Linglong 157, 17 October 1934, pp. 2035-8.
91. '"Sancun jinlian" yu xin shenghuo', Linglong 158, 24 October 1934, p. 2114.
92. Shanxi Yi Cungu, 'Qing jiuji chizu luotui', Linglong 154, 26 September 1934, p. 1856; 'Jinzhi luozu sheng zhong yi fansheng', Linglong 151, 29 August 1934, pp. 1664-5; Miss Liu Mei, 'Shehui fugu qingxiang zhong funü ying you de zijue', Linglong 157, 17 October 1934, pp. 2035-8.
93. 'Jinzhi luozu sheng zhong yi fansheng'.
94. Xiujuan, 'Luti fasheng wenti', Linglong 4, 8 April 1931, p. 112.
95. Miss Qixiu, 'Luoti wenxian', Linglong 191, 3 July 1935, pp. 1519-22; Yingwu, 'Luoti mei suyuan', Linglong 186, 5 June 1935, p. 1034.
96. Linglong 29, 30 September 1931, pp. 1076-7; 39, 9 December 1931, pp. 1532-3; 50, 18 May 1932, p. 2069; 53, 8 June 1932, pp. 120-21; 60, 27 July 1932, p. 460; Lisha, 'Ziran shenghuo yu Deguo funv', Linglong 88, 22 March 1933, pp. 344-5.
97. Zeng Na, 'Luoti da jihui zhi canju', Linglong 56, 29 June 1932, p. 281; ''Daojie luoti zhuyi zhe', Linglong 197, 14 August 1935, p. 2060; Fenzhen, 'Fenlan zhi luoti zhuzhi', Linglong 221, 22 January 1936, pp. 178-9; 'Xiangfen liao de dongji yundong chang', Linglong 271, 27 January 1937, pp. 311-4.
98. Ma Xiaojin, 'Tan Luoti', Linglong 189, 26 June 1935, pp. 1441-2; 191, 3 July 1935, p. 1528; Xiangcun, 'Luoti jiating', Linglong 241, 17 June 1936, pp. 1794-8; 'Meiguo de luoti xueyuan', Linglong 271, 27 January 1937, pp. 312-13.
99. Linglong 2, 25 March 1931, pp. 46-7; Lisha, 'Ziran shenghuo yu deguo funü', Linglong 88, 22 March 1933, pp. 344-5; 'Huabu zhi Yadang Xiawa', Linglong 97, 1933, p. 763; 'Dongjing wu chunü', Linglong 169, 23 January 1935, pp. 143-4.
100. Linglong 43, 13 January 1932 [wrongly dated 1931], p. 1723; 102, 12 July 1933, p. 1103; 206, 9 October 1935, p. 3344; Zhaoliang, 'Luoti yu fushi', Linglong 225, 26 February 1936, pp. 463-6.
101. Tan Xishan, 'Luoti, bansu, shi hewu: Yiguo qingdiao', Linglong 232, 24 June 1936, pp. 1025-7; ''Qingshi zhi liubing yundong', Linglong 225, 26 February 1936, pp. 526-7; 228, 18 March 1936, pp. 724-5; Yaofang, "Guangxi Yaoren funü de shenghuo", 97, 31 May 1933, p. 760.