'The silver flower contest': Rural Women in 1950s China and the gendered division of labour

Gender and History

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 594-612

  Xiaoxian, Gao ^a  

^a NORTHWEST UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENDER ISSUE; LABOR DIVISION; WOMENS STATUS;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 34147141994     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2006.00455.x     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. The All-China Women's Federation, which was referred to as the All-China Democratic Women's Federation in the early 1950s, is based in Beijing, and has a main branch in each province along with several sub-branches in the cities and counties of a given province. Since Weinan used to be a county (it is now a city) in Shaanxi Province, the Weinan Women's Federation is a sub-branch of the Shaanxi Women's Federation, which is itself the provincial branch of the All-China Women's Federation.
2. At the end of the 1950s, there was a popular movie called 'Five Golden Flowers' that depicted five women labour models who were members of national minorities. Inspired by the movie, the All-China Women's Federation and the media honoured the five women with the title of 'Five Silver Flowers' - hence the name, 'Silver Flower Contest'.
3. The cotton output in 1951 surpassed the highest output before thewar. If we take the highest output before the war as 100, then the output in 1951 would be 123; in 1952, 152 and in 1953, 139. The average consumption of cotton cloth per capita in 1950 was 11.99 chi (1 chi = 1/ 3 metre). It rose to 23.08 chi in 1953. The increase in the rate of cotton-cloth market supply was as follows: 1951, 33.4 per cent; 1952, 17.18 per cent and 1953, 47.8 per cent. Bo Yibo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (Beijing: The Publishing House of the Chinese Communist Party's Central Party School, 1991), pp. 191, 272-3.
4. In a revised draft of the National Programme on Agricultural Development, the state stipulated in January 1956 that 'in twelve years, the average cotton (lint) output per mu [1 mu = 1/6 of an acre] should increase from thirty-five jin [1 jin = half a kilogram] in 1955 (the national average output) to forty, sixty, eighty and 100 jin respectively, based on the conditions of different places'. '1956-1967 nian quanguo nongye fazhan gangyao (xiuzheng cao an)', in Xuexi Zazhishe (ed.), Shehui zhuyi jiaoyu kecheng de yuedu wenjian huibian (Beijing: People's Press, 1957), pp. 626-46, here p. 630.
5. Shaanxi Agricultural Bureau (ed.), Shaanxi sheng laomo yundong gaikuang (Xi'an: Shaanxi Agricultural Bureau Archives, 1952), pp. 194-8.
6. Xie Huaide made the following remark in 1956: 'cotton is not only an important raw material for the textile industry, but also a requirement in the national defence and chemical industries. For example, cotton is needed for making airplanes, auto tyres, insulating material and artificial silk⋯ Therefore, to increase cotton production on a large scale is of great significance to the national economy and people's livelihood, and is also a challenging task in our agricultural production'. Xie Huaide, 'Fadong funü zuohao miantian guanli, zhengqu mianhua da fengshou', in Shaanxi Democratic Women's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng fun̈ miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji (Xi'an: Shaanxi DemocraticWomen's Federation, 1956), pp. 8-17, here p. 8.
7. During the years of 1950-55, the ratio between grain and cotton prices fluctuated between 6.8-8.5, i.e. the price of 0.5 kilogram of cotton would be equivalent to that of 3.4-4.25 kilograms of wheat; this price discrepancy was higher, given the value of the labour force then, than the desirable ratio 1:6.5. After the state took control of all purchases and sales in 1956, the government no longer announced the ratio between grain and cotton prices. However, the ratio had always played an important part in cotton production. Take Shaanxi province in 1956, for example. The average price of wheat was RMB 10.05 yuan for 50 kilograms whereas the purchase price for 50 kilograms of standard quality cotton was RMB 78.35 yuan: The ratio was 1:7.8. Shaanxi Chronicles Committee, Shaanxi sheng zhi wujia zhi (Xi'an: Shaanxi Administrative Office, 1956), p. 106.
8. Tang Hongcheng, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de baogao', in Shaanxi Democratic Women's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 1-7, here p. 2.
9. Tang, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de baogao', p. 2.
10. 'The National Programme for Agricultural Development, 1956-1967 (Revised Draft)' contains the following statement: 'starting from 1956, in seven years' time, every able-bodied male labourer should work at least 250 days each year⋯ In seven years' time, every able-bodied female labourer, not counting the time for housework, should have no less than 80-180 days, depending on local circumstances each year and on agricultural and subsidiary (including household sideline) production'. '1956-1967 nian quanguo nongye fazhan gangyao (xiuzheng cao an)', p. 640.
11. Tang, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de baogao', p. 3.
12. Funü Daibiao [refers to 674 women's representatives who submitted a written pledge to the Shaanxi Committee of theCCPat the Conference on Exchanging Experience in Cotton Field Management byWomen in Shaanxi], 'Xiang zhonggong Shaanxi shengwei de baozheng shu', in Shaanxi Democratic Women's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 24-5, here p. 24.
13. In April 1958, the CCP's Shaanxi Committee issued instructions to promote Zhang Qiuxiang's experience in cotton planting. See 'Tuiguang Zhang Qiuxiang zhimian jingyan', in Shaanxi Chronicles Committee (ed.), Shaanxi sheng zhi funü zhi (Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press, 2001), p. 173.
14. The centre's proposal has the following statements: '1.We will do away with the backward and conservative thought that women were troublesome, unable to learn technical skills and not good to work with. We will help women to learn to read and write and acquire technical skills. 2. We will help all the advanced agricultural cooperatives to set up local adult technical schools after the summer harvest and before the autumn harvest so that women have frequent opportunities to learn to read and write and acquire technical skills. We will teach women technicians how to use the earth thermometer, thermometer and Baume hydrometer. We guarantee to help over 70 per cent of the illiterate and semi-illiterate women, over 80 per cent of the female adult-school participants, and over 90 per cent of the women with senior and junior high school education learn: (a) how to install and use the double furrow plough and the sowing machine; (b) how to distinguish red spiders, cotton aphids and plant bugs, and to use chemical implements for the prevention of plant diseases and (c) how to do pruning and so on'. 'Dali xian chengguan nongye jishu tuiguang zhan xiang quansheng funü tichu wuda jishu baozheng he xiang quansheng ge xiongdi nongye jichu tuiguang zhan ti chu changyishu', in Shaanxi Democratic Women's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 26-7, here p. 27.
15. At the 1956 meeting, the Director of the Shaanxi DemocraticWomen's Federation exercised self-criticism: 'in the past we did not do well in this respect. From now on we will change our work style and attach importance to and take real leadership in this work'. Hai Tao, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de jiang hua', in Shaanxi DemocraticWomen's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 18-23, here p. 22.
16. Mao Zedong, 'Zai 1943 nian shan gan ning bianqu laoying huiyi shang de jianghua', as quoted in Shaanxi Agricultural Bureau (ed.), Shaanxi sheng laomo yundong gaikuang, p. 51.
17. Chen Yun, 'Zai 1950 nian quanguo gongnongbing laomo daibiaohui shang de jianghua', as quoted in Shaanxi Agricultural Bureau (ed.), Shaanxi sheng laomo yundong gaikuang, p. 51.
18. Weinan nong ye hezuoshi bianwei hui (ed.), Weinan diqu nongye hezuo shiliao (Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press, 1993), p. 386.
19. Zhang Qiuxiang,'Women de mianhua fengchan tian shi za yang guanli de', in Shaanxi DemocraticWomen's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 33-40, here pp. 33-4.
20. Shaanxi Chronicles Committee (ed.), Shaanxi sheng zhi funü zhi, p. 173
21. The term 'women's liberation movement' was used by the CCP itself, even though the movement was under the CCP's control. This is an example of how the CCP inherited a term that had been circulating in the global arena and changed its meaning for the Chinese political context of the time.
22. G. M. Sverdlov, as quoted in ''Bixu yong zongluxian de jingshen jiaoyu guangda funü', editorial, Renmin ribao, 27 January 1954, repr. in The Research Office of the All-ChinaWomen's Federation (ed.), Dongyuan guangda funü wei zhubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng (Beijing: Finance and Economics Press, 1955), p. 21.
23. 'Bixu yong zongluxian de jingshen jiaoyu guangda nongcun funü', Renmin ribao, 27 January 1954.
24. TheResearch Office of the All-ChinaWomen's Federation (ed.), Dongyuan guangda funüwei zhubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng, p. 50.
25. The instructions go further: 'in the transitional period, ourwork with peasantwomen is mainly to educate and organise large numbers of peasant women to fulfil the general task of the nation, to bring about the socialist transformation of agriculture and to keep improving agricultural productivity so that the development of agricultural production is in line with that of the socialist industrialisation in our country; and on this basis, to strive for women's complete liberation'. The Research Office of the All-ChinaWomen's Federation (ed.), Dongyuan guangda funü wei zhubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng, p. 8.
26. The Research Office of the All-China Women's Federation (ed.), Dongyuan guangda funü wei zhoubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng, p. 50.
27. Zhang, 'Women de mianhua fengchan tian shi za yang guanli de', pp. 33-4.
28. G. Y. S., interview by Gao Xiaoxian, 2003. Interviewees who wish to remain anonymous are identified by initials. All interview transcripts cited in this essay are in the possession of the author, and are to be donated to the Gender and Development Resource Centre (currently under construction) of the Shaanxi Association for the Study of Women's Theory, Marriage and Family.
29. Hai, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de jiang hua', p. 21.
30. Xinhua she, Xi'an [Xi'an branch of Xinhua News Agency], 'Zhang Qiuxiang-diyi ge nongmin chushen de nü yanjiu yuan', Renmin ribao, 29 June 1958.
31. W. L., interview by Gail Hershatter and Ning Huanxia, 1996.
32. Veteran cadres ofWeinanWomen's Federation, discussion transcribed by Gao Xiaoxian and Gail Hershatter, 1996.
33. Y. Z. X., interview by Gao Xiaoxian, 2004.
34. Kang Zenghui and Liu Shaoye, 'Shaanxi sheng Dali xian Huangpu cun nongye shengchan hezuoshe shi zenyang fadong funü canjia nongye shengchan de', in The Research Office of the All-China Women's Federation (ed.), Dongyuan guangda funü wei zhubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng, pp. 47-53, here p. 49.
35. W. L., interview by Gail Hershatter and Ning Huanxia, 1996.
36. Tang, 'Zai funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui shang de baogao', p. 5.
37. 'Jiji zhichi he bangzhu funü xuexi zhimian jishu', editorial, Shaanxi ribao, April 1956, repr. in Shaanxi Democratic Women's Federation (ed.), Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, pp. 28-30, here p. 28.
38. Yang Youren, 'Shi mianhua', Xibei funü huabao, May 1955.
39. 'Jiji zhichi he bangzhu funü xuexi zhimian jishu', in Shaanxi sheng funü miantian guanli jingyan jiaoliu dahui zhuanji, p. 28.
40. Shaanxi Chronicles Committee, Shaanxi sheng zhi funü zhi, p. 174.
41. Y. Z. X., interview by Gao Xiaoxian, 2004.
42. Z. X. X., interview by Wang Guohong, 1993.
43. G. Z. X., interview by Gao Xiaoxian and Gail Hershatter, 1997.
44. Zhang Qiuxiang mentioned that she had attended every national conference on cotton production. Zhang Qiuxiang, interview by Gao Xiaoxian and Gail Hershatter, 1996.
45. L. G. L., interview by Gail Hershatter and Ning Huanxia, 1996.
46. Kang and Liu, 'Shaanxi sheng Dali xian Huangpu cun nongye shengchan hezuoshe shi zenyang fadong funü canjia nongye shengchan de', p. 51.
47. Y. Z. X., interview by Gao Xiaoxian, 2004.
48. L. G. L., interview by Gail Hershatter and Ning Huanxia, 1996.
49. L. G. L., interview by Gail Hershatter and Ning Huanxia, 1996.
50. Y. R. Z., interview by Gao Xiaoxian and Guo Huiming, 1997.
51. L. G. L., interview by Wang Guohong, 1993.
52. G. Y. S., interview by Gao Xiaoxian, 2003.
53. 'Woguo funü jiefang yundong de xin jieduan', editorial, Renmin ribao, 8 March 1950.
54. 'Bixu yong zongluxian de jingshen jiaoyu guangda funü', in Dongyuan guangda funü wei zhubu shixian nongye hezuohua er douzheng, p. 21.
55. Veteran cadres of WeinanWomen's Federation, discussion transcribed by Gao Xiaoxian and Gail Hershatter, 1996.