New plans for housing in urban Kenya, 1939-63

Planning Perspectives

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 195-223

  Harris, Richard ^a   Hay, Alison ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HOUSING PROVISION; NEIGHBORHOOD; POLICY DEVELOPMENT; URBAN AREA; URBAN HOUSING; URBANIZATION;

ARTICLE; DEMOGRAPHY; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; FAMILY SIZE; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH; HISTORY; HOUSING; KENYA; LEGAL ASPECT; MALE; MEN'S HEALTH; POLICY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; URBAN POPULATION;

HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOUSING; KENYA; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; MEN; MEN'S HEALTH; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; SINGLE PERSON; URBAN HEALTH; URBAN POPULATION; URBAN RENEWAL;

AFRICA; EAST AFRICA; ENGLAND; EURASIA; EUROPE; KENYA; LONDON [ENGLAND]; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 33947526094     PISSN: 02665433     EISSN: 14664518     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02665430701213580     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. See for example Peter Hall Cities of Tomorrow. An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Blackwell, 1988, p. 190.
2. R. Harris, From Miser to Spendthrift. Public Housing and the Vulnerability of Colonialism in Barbados, 1935-1965,Journal of Urban History 33 (2007) forthcoming
3. J. M. Fraser,The Work of the Singapore Improvement Trust, 1927-1947. Singapore: G.H. Kiat and Co., 1948
4. G. G. Thomson, Singapore's New Housing.Corona 7 (1955) 23-5. Recent accounts of Singapore's accomplishments in the housing field ignore or downplay the colonial legacy.
5. G. Wilson, Mombasa. A Modern Colonial Municipality, in A. Southall (ed.) Social Change in Modern Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 98-112
6. H. de Blij, Mombasa. An African City. Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1968, pp. 51-71.
7. A. D. King, Exporting planning: The colonial and the neo-colonial experience, in G. Cherry (ed.) Shaping an Urban World. London: Mansell, pp. 203-26
8. R. K. Home, Of Planting and Planning. The Making of British Colonial Cities. London: E and FN Spon, 1997.
9. J. Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985. London: Methuen, 1986
10. R. K. Home, Town planning and garden cities in the British colonial Empire, 1910-1940. Planning Perspectives 5 (1990) 23-37.
11. S. V. Ward, Planning and the Twentieth Century City. The Advanced Capitalist World. Chichester, UK: Wiley, pp. 116-17
12. A. K. Nevanlinna, Interpreting Nairobi. The Cultural Study of Built Forms. Helsinki: Suomen Historiallinen Seura, 1996, p. 172.
13. R. Home, From barrack compounds to the single family house. Planning worker housing in colonial Natal and Northern Rhodesia. Planning Perspectives 15 (2000) 327-47.
14. E. R. St A. Davies, Some Problems Arising From the Conditions of Housing and Employment of Natives in Nairobi, 18 Aug. 1939, Typescript [Nairobi Municipal Archives 33/2 and RH, Mss. Afr.t.13]
15. F. Hewett, A Survey of Government African Quarters, Typescript, Kisumu, 1940, 12 pp. Enclosed with F. Hewett, Senior Health Inspector, Kisumu, to Medical Officer of Health, Kisumu. Correspondence, P. C. Nyanza [NAKS, Film 2800, Reel 74]
16. P. P. D. Connolly, Native Housing - Mombasa, 29 Sept. 1939, in Kenya, Report of the Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Examine the Labour Conditions in Mombasa, 1939, Nairobi, 1939, Appendix I, pp. 51-5
17. Notes on Labour in Mombasa, in Kenya, ibid., pp.60-4
18. K. A. T. Martin and T. C. Colchester, Memorandum for the Native Affairs Commission of the Nairobi Municipal Council, Nairobi, 1941
19. A. J. S. Hutton, A Memorandum on the African Housing Scheme at Makongeni, Nairobi, Kenya Colony, Typescript [CO/533/551/3]
20. G. C. W. Ogilvie, The Housing of Africans in the Urban Areas of Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya Information Office, 1946
21. L. S. Colchester and R. L. Collison, House Building for Africans. Nairobi: Highway Press, 1947
22. H. S. Booker, The Official Provision of Housing in Mombasa, and N. M. Deverell, A Social Investigation in Mombasa, Appendix D (pp. 52-8) and Section II (pp. 60-103), in H. S. Booker, Report on the Economic and Social Background of Mombasa Labour Disputes, Nairobi, April 1947, Cyclostyled [CO 533/545/4]
23. F. W. Carpenter and T. C. Colchester, Report arising out of the study tour to the Union of South Africa and the Rhodesias - January to February, 1949, in E. A. Vasey, Report on African Housing in Townships and Trading Centres, Typescript, Nairobi, April 1950, Appendix A, pp. 47-65
24. E. R. Cousins, African Housing in Native Locations, in Townships and Trading Centres, Cyclostyled, in E. A. Vasey,
25. ibid., Appendix C, pp. 70-8
26. Short Survey on Housing in Kenya, in Commision pour la coopération technique en Afrique au Sud du Sahara (ed.) Surveys of Housing Practice in British Territories in Africa.
27. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, 1952, pp. 119-60
28. G. A. Tyson, The African Housing Problem. A Memorandum submitted to the Nairobi Chamber of Commerce. Nairobi: The English Press, 1953 [CO 822/ 588]
29. Kenya, A Short Historical Review of the Salary Scales and Terms and Conditions of Africans, 21 Feb. 1953, Cyclostyled, 7 pp. [CO 892/7/1]
30. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey - Nairobi Locations, Mimeo typescript, Nairobi, 1955, 37 pp. [ML 1/195, KNA]
31. Kenya, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Corruption or Other Malpractices in Relation to the Affairs of the Nairobi City Council, Dec.1955-March 1956. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1956; Housing in the Nairobi African Locations. Summary, Mimeo typescript [RH, Mss. Perham, Box 460, File 1]
32. N. Burudi, Housing and Family Census. Government, Municipal and Employer-Built Houses on Mombasa Island, Mimeo typescript, Mombasa, June 1957, 25 pp. [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8]
33. G. M. Wilson, African Housing in Municipalities, Townships and Training Centres. An Appreciation of the Vasey Report of 1950, Mimeo typescript, 1957, 14 pp. [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8]
34. G. M. Wilson, Kongawea, Mimeo typescript, Feb. 1957, 15 pp. [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8]
35. G. M. Wilson, Temporary African Housing - A Comparison, Mimeo typescript, 1957, 6 pp. [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8
36. G. M. Wilson, A General Summary of African Housing, Mimeo typescript, 1957, 12 pp. [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8]
37. A. C. Waine, African Housing in the Urban Areas of Kenya. Overseas Building Notes 53 (1958) 1-13
38. C. W. S. Seed and W. M. Woodhouse, The Report of the Housing Mission, 1 Sept. 1961, Typescript, 19 pp. [CO 822/1946].
39. The major statement connecting housing with urban planning was L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, Nairobi. Master Plan for a Colonial Capital. London, 1948. The annual reports of several government departments, including those of Labour and African (later Native) Affairs, together with the reports of the Central Housing Board, are also sometimes very informative.
40. T. Askwith, African Housing in Nairobi. Journal of African Administration 2 (1950) 37-9
41. D. Moriarty, Kenya Houses its Africans. Town and Country Planning 23 (1955) 369-74
42. A. C. Waine, Ibid.
43. N. R. E. Fendall, Housing, Health and Happiness. East African Medical Journal 36 (1959) 473-85
44. D. J. Penwill, A Pilot Scheme for Two Kikuyu Improved Villages near Nairobi. Journal of African Administration 12 (1960) 61-7
45. T. Askwith, Progress Through Self-Help. Nairobi: Eagle Press, 1960
46. T. Askwith, Self-Help Housing. Journal of African Administration 13 (1961) 204-10.
47. M. Parker, Political and Social Aspects of the Development of the Municipal Government in Kenya with Special Reference to Nairobi. PhD dissertation, University of London, 1949
48. F. Brockway, African Journeys. London: Gollancz, 1955, pp. 105-6
49. A. Hake, Housing and Industry in Nairobi, Roneoed, Nairobi, 1959 [Hake Papers, PPMS 46, Box 37, File 4:5, SOAS]
50. A. Hake, African Metropolis. Nairobi's Self-Help City. London: Sussex University Press, 1977
51. K. G. McVicar, Twilight of an East African Slum. Pumwani and the Evolution of African Settlement in Nairobi. PhD dissertation, UCLA, 1968 [Hake Papers, PPMS 46, Box 42, File 4:42, SOAS].
52. F. Cooper, On the African Waterfront. Urban Disorder and the Transformation of Work in Colonial Mombasa. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987)
53. L. White, The Comforts of Home. Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990
54. J. Lewis, Empire State-Building. War and Welfare in Kenya, 1925-52. Oxford: James Currey, 2001.
55. A. K. Nevanlinna, op. cit. [6]
56. M. Parker, op. cit. [10]
57. L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, op. cit. [8]
58. D. Etherton, Mathare Valley. A Case Study of Uncontrolled Settlement in Nairobi. Nairobi: United Nations Housing Research and Development Unit, 1971
59. R. van Zwanenberg, History and Theory of Urban Poverty in Nairobi, Working Paper 26, Institute for Development, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, 1972
60. A. Hake, African Metropolis, op. cit. [10]
61. C. Dickerman, Africans in Nairobi during the Emergency. Social and Economic Changes, 1952-1960. MA thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1978
62. R. Stren, Housing the Urban Poor in Africa. Policy, Politics and Bureaucracy in Mombasa. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Institute of International Studies, 1978
63. Søren Emig and Zakir Ismail, Notes on the Urban Planning of Nairobi. Copenhagen: School of Architecture, 1980
64. R. Stren, A Site and Service Scheme in Mombasa, in R. A. Obudho (ed.) Urbanization and Development Planning in Kenya. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1981, pp. 215-43
65. F. Barnow, N. W. Hansen, M. Johnsen, A. Poulsen, V. Rønnow and K. Sølvsten, Urban Development in Kenya. The Growth of Nairobi 1900-1970. Copenhagen: Aurora Publishers, 1983
66. F. Cooper, Ibid.
67. D. Anderson, Corruption at City Hall. African Housing and Urban Development in Colonial Nairobi. Azania 36-7 (2002) 138-54. A notable exception is M. G. Baker, Citizenship on the Septic Fringe. Urban Social Policy and Peri-Urban Development in Kisumu, Kenya. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan.
68. [Lord] F. J. D. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. Blackwood: Edinburgh, 1922.
69. Colonial Office, Indians in Kenya. London: HMSO, 1923, p. 10.
70. Aidan Southall, The Impact of Imperialism upon Urban Development in Africa, in V. Turner (ed.) Colonialism in Africa 1870-1960. Vol. III Profiles of Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 245.
71. F. Cooper, op. cit. [11], p. 48. Those who employed casual labour, for less than twenty-four hours, were relieved of this responsibility. Employers also had the option of providing a housing allowance in lieu of accommodation, which some used as a pretext to limit wage.
72. See also D. M. Anderson, Master and Servant in Colonial Kenya, 1895-1939. Journal of African History 41 (2000) 459-85.
73. Alison Hay and Richard Harris, The Colonial Regime of Urban Housing. The Peculiarities of Kenya to 1939. Urban History 34 (2007) forthcoming.
74. F. Cooper, op. cit. [11], p. 184.
75. A. Hake, African Metropolis, op. cit. [10], p. 256, n. 15. Hake's source was the records of the Railways administration.
76. F. Hewett, A Survey, op. cit. [8].
77. For details see A. Hay and R. Harris, op. cit. [17]. In 1954 the Lidbury Commission recommended that the government should withdraw from the provision of housing for its employees and instead focus on meeting the needs of the general population. Initially, at any rate, this suggestion was ignored.
78. C. W. S. Seed and W. M. Woodhouse, op. cit. [8], pp. 2, 4.
79. Kenya, Report of the Committee on African Wages. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1954, Appendix D.
80. W. Senga, Growth Profiles of Small Cities. Thika, Kenya, in Growth Profile of Small Cities. Tokyo: UN Centre for Regional Development, 1983, p. 21. Gordon Wilson has suggested that the amount of employer housing in Mombasa was actually increasing during the 1950s.
81. G. Wilson, op. cit. [3], p. 106.
82. Kenya, Labour Department Annual Report, 1944, p. 3
83. 1949, p. 5
84. cf. R. Home, op. cit. [7].
85. A. Hake, Housing and Industry, op. cit. [10].
86. A. Hake, African Metropolis, op. cit. [10], p. 257, n. 7.
87. A. Hay and R. Harris, op. cit. [17].
88. A. Hake, African Metropolis, op. cit. [10], pp. 51, 53.
89. By-laws nos 92-8 of the Municipal Board of Mombasa. Single Storey Village Layouts, typescript, 5 pp. In Mombasa Social Survey [RH, Mss. Afr. s.919(1), Mombasa Social Survey Papers 1956-8]
90. R. Stren, Housing the Urban Poor, op. cit. [12], pp. 131-2
91. F. Cooper, op. cit. [11], p. 183.
92. M. R. Dilley, British Policy in Kenya Colony. New York: Nelson, 1937, p. 187.
93. C. Elkins, Britain's Gulag. London: Jonathan Cape, 2005, pp. 15-17.
94. M. Blundell, So Rough a Wind. London: Wiedenfeld and Nelson, 1964, p. 74.
95. Ibid., pp. 103, 110, 148
96. J. Lewis, op. cit. [11], pp. 287-9
97. T. Askwith, African Housing, op. cit. [9]
98. T. Askwith, Progress Through Self-Help, op. cit. [9].
99. A. Clayton and D. C. Savage, Government and Labour in Kenya, 1895-1963. London: Frank Cass, p. 253.
100. K. A. T. Martin and T. C. Colchester, op. cit. [8].
101. Kenya, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Labour Unrest at Mombasa. Parts I and II. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1945, p. 50
102. A. Clayton and D. C. Savage, op. cit. [33], p. 271.
103. T. Askwith, African Housing, op. cit. [9], p. 37.
104. E. A. Vasey, op. cit. [8]. Vasey was mayor of Nairobi from 1941-2 and 1944-6, sat on the Legislative Council from 1945-52 and was Minister of Finance from 1952-9.
105. S. Stockwell, Vasey, Sir Ernest Albert (1901-1984). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
106. E. A. Vasey to R. E. Norton, 13 Nov. 1952 [CO 822/304].
107. W. Elkan and R. van Zwanenberg, How people came to live in towns, in P. Duignan and L. H. Gann (eds) Colonialism in Africa. Vol.4, The Economics of Colonialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975, pp. 655-72.
108. F. Cooper, op. cit. [11]
109. J. Lewis, op. cit. [11]
110. Janet Seeley, Social Welfare in a Kenyan Town. Policy and Practice, 1902-1985. African Affairs 86 (1987) 541-66. The wage logic was eventually spelt out most clearly by the Carpenter Report in 1954.
111. Kenya, op. cit. [21].
112. C. H. Hartwell, African Wage Policy (Secret), Memorandum to the East Africa Royal Commission, 11 Nov. 1952, Mimeo, 6 pp. [CO 892/7/1].
113. R. Brooke-Popham, Governor, to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 31 July 1939 [CO 533/513/12].
114. F. J. Pedler, Minute, Sept. 1939 [CO 533/513/12].
115. Kenya, Medical Department Annual Report, 1945. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1947, p. 21.
116. Kenya, African Affairs Department Annual Report, 1950. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1951, p. 58
117. F. Cooper, op. cit. [11], p. 185.
118. African Housing, [editorial] East African Standard (16 October 1954) 4.
119. W. J. D. Wadley, oral testimony to the East Africa Royal Commission, 13 Jan. 1954, p. 3. Typescript [CO 892/8/3].
120. A. J. Kent, Memorandum to the East Africa Royal Commission, 23 Feb. 1953, Mimeo, p. 6 [CO 892/5/4].
121. M. Parker, op. cit. [10], pp. 79, 84-5
122. A. Hay and R. Harris, op. cit. [17].
123. Kenya, Application for Assistance from the Colonial Development and Welfare Vote, Feb.1944, Typescript [CO 533/531/2].
124. W. W. Ridout, to the Hon. Commissioner for Local Government, 2 July 1942 [CO 533/528/18].
125. G. C. W. Ogilvie, op. cit. [8], p.27.
126. Ibid., p. 28
127. cf. A. K. Nevanlinna, op. cit. [6], pp. 171-7.
128. L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, op. cit. [8], pp. 31, 43, 46
129. S. Emig and Z. Ismail, op. cit. [12], p. 39. Reported counts of African children were subject to large errors.
130. R. Harris, Development and Hybridity Made Concrete in the Colonies. Environment and Planning A 39 (2007) forthcoming.
131. K. A. T. Martin and T. C. Colchester, op. cit. [8], p. 3.
132. G. C. W. Ogilvie, op. cit. [8], p. 16.
133. The information in this paragraph is drawn from this source, which includes a number of plans and photographs, and also from A. J. S. Hutton, op. cit. [8].
134. L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, op. cit. [8], p. 34.
135. Nairobi. Municipal African Affairs Officer, Annual Report on African Affairs in Nairobi - 1946. Nairobi, cyclostyled, 1947, p. 12 [CO/533/558/ 7]. The Congo was only just becoming a model for family housing, which it remained for about a decade.
136. See, for example, L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, op. cit. [8], p. 35
137. L. Wuyts, Town Planning in the African City, Leopoldville, Belgian Congo. Colonial Building Notes 35 (1956) 5-6.
138. K. A. T. Martin and T. C. Colchester, op. cit. [8]
139. F. W. Carpenter and T. C. Colchester, op. cit. [8]
140. G. M. Wilson, A General Survey of African Housing, op. cit. [8]
141. L. W. Thornton White, L. Silberman and P. R. Anderson, op. cit. [8], pp. 20, 22, 73. Carpenter was promoted to Labour Commissioner in 1951, a position he held until 1954.
142. J. L. Keith, Minute to file: Brooke-Popham to Secretary of State [CO 533/ 513/12]
143. A. Clayton and D. C. Savage, op. cit. [33], p. 197.
144. See the minuted discussions attached to: Governor's Secretary to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 25 Aug. 1941 [enclosing report of April 30, 1941] [CO/533/528/17].
145. Kauntze's opinion mattered since he was an acknowledged expert who had direct knowledge of African conditions, while Pedler was a recognized authority who had assisted Lord Hailey on his influential African survey. W. H. Kauntze, Minute, 21 Jan. 1943 [CO 533/530/4]
146. S. Stockwell, Pedler, Sir. Frederick Johnson (1908-1991). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
147. G. C. W. Ogilvie, op. cit. [8], p. 13.
148. Ibid., n. p.
149. M. F. Hill, Permanent Way. Vol. I. The Story of the Kenya and Uganda Railway. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1956, p. 566.
150. E. A. Vasey, op. cit. [8]
151. African Housing, op. cit. [46].
152. Kenya, op. cit. [21].
153. United Kingdom. East Africa Royal Commission, East Africa Royal Commission 1953-1955 Report. London: HMSO, 1955, Cmd.9475, pp. 205, 211-12
154. Despatches from the Governors of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika and from the Administrator, East Africa High Commission, Commenting on the East Africa Royal Commission 1953-1955 Report. London: HMSO, 1956, pp. 67-73.
155. G. C. W. Ogilvie, op. cit. [8], n. p.
156. G. Rennie, Acting Governor, to O. Stanley, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 6 Nov. 1944 [CO 533/551/3]. Kenya had pushed hard for a 40-year loan. H. Moore, Governor, to O. Stanley, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 29 May 1944 [CO 533/551/3].
157. Colonial Office, Annual Report on the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya for the Year 1946. London: HMSO, 1946, p. 57
158. R. Stren, Housing the Urban Poor, op. cit. [12], p. 198.
159. Kenya, Legislative Council Debates, Vol. XVIII, 9 Dec. 1943. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1943, p. 687.
160. Compiled from data reported in Colonial Office, Annual Report of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya for the Year 1948. London: HMSO, 1949, p. 56,
161. and Annual Report ... for ... 1949, (1950), p. 66.
162. Ibid., 1953, p. 69.
163. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey, op. cit. [8].
164. An additional temporary housing project at Marurani, opened in 1945, had recently been demolished.
165. N. R. E. Fendall, op. cit. [9].
166. N. Burudi, op. cit. [8].
167. G. M. Wilson, African Housing in Municipalities, op. cit. [8], p. 3.
168. The following account is drawn from the autobiographical account sketched by N. Kabiro, Man in the Middle. Richmond, B.C.: LSM Information Centre, 1973.
169. Following British precedent, various combinations of 'municipal/council housing/estate' were the preferred terms for what in North America is usually known as public housing.
170. L. White, op. cit. [11], p. 144.
171. Mayor Travis, and eight others, oral testimony to the East Africa Royal Commission, Jan.15, 1954 [CO 892/8/3]
172. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey, op. cit. [8], p. 29.
173. In Nairobi, 69% of the African men who were surveyed were married, and of these 40% had wives and (in most cases) children. Ibid., p. 28.
174. N. Burudi, op. cit. [8], p. 4.
175. L. J. Kamau, Semipublic, Private and Hidden Rooms. Symbolic Aspects of Domestic Space in Urban Kenya. African Urban Studies 3 (1978-9) 105-16.
176. L. White, op. cit. [11], p. 146.
177. A. Hake, African Metropolis, op. cit. [10], p. 64. Hake claims that the shift in emphasis to family housing did not occur until the mid-1950s but this is clearly untrue.
178. Each block contained two shower stalls, each, for men and women; six latrines for women, four for men, and a men's urinal. See the plan included in G. C. W. Ogilvie, op. cit. [8], p. 19.
179. Ibid., p. 42.
180. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey, op. cit. [8], p. 13.
181. This is made clear in Kenya. Office of the Member for Health, Lands and Government, Development of Facilities for the Permanent Settlement of Africans in Urban Areas. Housing, Typescript, Nairobi, Feb.23, 1953, p.7 [CO 892/7/1].
182. N. Burudi, op. cit. [8], p. 2.
183. Ibid., p. 10.
184. Ibid., p. 11.
185. Ibid., p. 4. Occasionally, the reverse happened. At Port Tudor the East African breweries allocated some of the two-room flats that had been intended for families to four 'single' men.
186. Ibid., p. 13.
187. G. M. Wilson, African Housing in Municipalities, op. cit. [8], p. 5
188. N. Burudi, op. cit. [8], p. 2.
189. N. Burudi, op. cit. [8], p. 9.
190. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey, op. cit. [8], p. 24.
191. G. M. Wilson, A General Summary, op. cit. [8], p. 6
192. G. M. Wilson, African Housing in Municipalities, op. cit. [8], p. 5.
193. S. V. Ward, Re-examining the international diffusion of planning, in R. Freestone (ed.) Urban Planning in a Changing World. London: E & FN Spon, 2000, pp. 40-60.
194. [Lord] William M. Hailey, Native Administration in the British African Territories, Part 1. London: HMSO, 1950, p. 180;
195. B. W. Gussman, Out in the Midday Sun. London: Allen and Unwin, 1962, p. 75
196. David Throup, The Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau. London: James Currey, 1988, p. 178.
197. G. M. Wilson, African Housing Survey, op. cit. [8], p. 22.
198. D. Howell, Brockway, (Archibald) Fenner, Baron Brockway (1888-1988), rev. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
199. F. Brockway, African Journeys. London: Gollancz, 1955, p. 105. He probably made this tour in 1950.
200. Ibid.