The aesthetics of city-scale preservation policy in Beijing

Planning Perspectives

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 129-166

  Abramson, Daniel Benjamin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONSERVATION PLANNING; ESTHETICS; PLANNING PRACTICE; URBAN AREA; URBAN DESIGN; URBAN POLICY;

CHINA; CITY; CITY PLANNING; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ESTHETICS; ETHNOLOGY; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH; HISTORY; LEGAL ASPECT; POLICY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; REVIEW; SANITATION; SOCIAL CHANGE; URBAN POPULATION;

CHINA; CITIES; CITY PLANNING; ESTHETICS; GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; PUBLIC FACILITIES; PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE; SOCIAL CHANGE; URBAN HEALTH; URBAN POPULATION; URBAN RENEWAL;

ASIA; BEIJING [CHINA]; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 33947507498     PISSN: 02665433     EISSN: 14664518     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02665430701213531     Document Type: Review

References (171)

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22. ibid., pp. 3-28.
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30. Mingzheng Shi, Beijing Transforms: Urban Infrastructure, Public Works, and Social Change in the Chinese Capital, 1900-1928. PhD dissertation, New York: Columbia University, 1993. Xiamen, on the south-east coast, which experienced near-complete demolition and reconstruction during the late 1920s and early 1930s, was an extreme exception.
31. James A. Cook, Bridges to Modernity: Xiamen, Overseas Chinese and Southeast Coastal Modernization, 1843-1937. PhD dissertation, San Diego: University of California, San Diego, 1998.
32. Ping He, China's Search for Modernity: Cultural Discourse in the Late 20th Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan in association with St Antony's College Oxford, 2002.
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35. Mingzheng Shi, op. cit. [15], pp. 110-18, 380-4
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37. D. Strand, ibid.
38. Xiaocong Li and C. Lamoureux, ibid.
39. Mingzheng Shi, ibid.
40. Dongping Yang, ibid.
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43. Lin Zhu, Liang Sicheng, Lin Huiyin Yu Wo [Liang Sicheng, Lin Huiyin and Me]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2004.
44. Sicheng Liang, Beijing, Dushi Jihua De Wubi Jizuo [Beijing: An unparalleled masterpiece of urban planning], in Sicheng Liang (ed.) Liang Sicheng Wen Ji [Selected Works of Liang Sicheng]. Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe [China Architecture and Building Press], 1982, p. 55. Although the essay is attributed usually only to Liang, he noted Lin's contribution.
45. Wilma Fairbank, Liang and Lin: Partners in Exploring China's Architectural Past. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994
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47. Liangyong Wu, op. cit. [19], pp. 6-10.
48. A. M. Tung, op. cit. [1], p. 146. Anthony Tung quotes a French Naval officer at the conclusion of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 who also marvelled at the 'unity' of the Forbidden City's design in comparison with European capitals (Jun Wang, op. cit. [19], pp. 20-2).
49. In an interview in 1999, I. M. Pei also used the language of Beijing's unity in arguing that the city should have preserved its walls and, like Paris, restricted new tall buildings to the outside: 'The most outstanding feature of Beijing's old city is precisely that it is a complete, planned whole (yi ge wanzheng de you jihua de zhengti), and therefore, [its] preservation must take this wholeness as the starting point' (Jun Wang, op. cit. [19], p. 85).
50. Xing Ruan, Accidental Affinities: American Beaux-Arts in Twentieth-Century Chinese Architectural Education and Practice. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 61, 1 (2002) 30-47.
51. The Beaux-Arts influence on modern Chinese architecture is of growing scholarly interest (Jun Wang, op. cit. [19], pp. 114-15).
52. The University of Pennsylvania held a conference on October 3-5, 2003, on 'The Beaux-Arts, Paul Philippe Cret and 20th Century Architecture in China' (see http://www.design.upenn.edu/arch/news/cretschedule.htm). The proceedings have not been published, but among the many presentations relevant to the topic of this article, one of the most helpful was by Zhao Chen of Nanjing University, 'Elevation or Façade: Liang Sicheng's Misinterpretations for Chinese Timber Architecture with Beaux-Arts/U Penn Classicism'.
53. Ibid., p. 114.
54. The debate between Hua Lanhong and Chen Zhanxiang, as well as their personal backgrounds and the larger history of Beijing's planning after the founding of the People's Republic, is described at length in Jun Wang's book, which reprints the drawings of their contrasting schemes from Jian Guo yilai de Beijing Chengshi Jianshe [The Urban Construction of Beijing Since the Founding of the Country] (1986).
55. Ibid., pp. 216-20.
56. Xinmin Hua, Beijing Hongxing Hutong 53 Hao He 55 Hao Bei Qiangzhi Chaichu Qianhou [before and after the Forced Demolition of Beijing Hongxing Hutong Number 53 and 55] (written by Hua Xinmin, February 14, 2005), www.people.com.cn, 2005, available at http://bbs.people.com.cn/ bbs/ReadFile?whichfile=993&typeid=107&openfile=1 (accessed 5 May 2006)
57. Chu Cai, Hua Lanhong Su Beijing Shi Gui Wei Yi an Ben Yue 5 Ri Shangwu Jiu Shi Zai Di Er Zhongji Fa Yuan Kai [the Case of Hua Lanhong V. Beijing Planning Commission Opens at 9:00am on the 5th of This Month in the Second Intermediate Court] (submitted by Hua Xinmin, January 2, 2006, 21:13:35) boxun.com, 2006, cited 5 May 2006; available from http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/china/2006/01/200601022354.shtml.
58. Hua Lanhong returned to France during the Cultural Revolution, but the irony of his career continues today. His daughter Hua Xinmin settled in Beijing and in the late 1990s became an outspoken advocate of courtyard house preservation in the old city. They are currently suing the Beijing Municipal Planning Commission for an improper taking and demolition of their own property - a courtyard house Hua Lanhong's father (himself an eminent engineer) purchased and began to transform in 1914. It was to this house that Hua Lanhong brought his family to live in Beijing in 1951 (Renzhi Hou, The Transformation of the Old City of Beijing, China: A Concrete Manifestation of New China's Cultural Reconstruction, in Michael. P. Conzen (ed.) World Patterns of Modern Urban Change: Essays in Honor of Chauncy D. Harris. Chicago: University of Chicago Dept. of Geography, 1986, pp. 217-39).
59. Xiang Lu and Qiming Wang, Beijing Siheyuan. Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe [China Building Industry Press], 1996, p. 161.
60. Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the results of a survey conducted by a Tsinghua University planning team for the West City District Planning Bureau between 1995 and 1997. The West City District occupies the north-west quadrant of Beijing's old city. Approximately 173 hectares of one-storey housing and hutongs were demolished there between 1949 and 1989, leaving about 1000 hectares left intact (though often dilapidated and filled in). From 1990 to 1997, an additional 134 hectares were cleared, equal to 77% of all the area cleared during the previous forty years. Another 434 hectares were slated for clearance to make way for projects that were approved at the end of 1996, leaving only 426 hectares intact for the future. Some of the area planned for clearance after 1996 was later protected in the 2004 plan for additional preservation districts. However, other areas of the West City that were not planned for clearance in 1996 have since been demolished.
61. The Chinese term that is translated as 'preservation' in this article, baohu, more literally means 'protection'. This seems to be one reflection of the reaction to the violent onslaughts of the Cultural Revolution on historic architecture. In Taiwan, a word much closer in literal meaning to 'preservation', baocun, is used in place of baohu.
62. Michael Leaf, Urban Planning and Urban Reality under Chinese Economic Reforms. Journal of Planning Education and Research 18, 2 (1998) 145-53.
63. Ernest Sternberg, An Integrative Theory of Urban Design. Journal of the American Planning Association 66, 3 (2000) 265-78. The institutional history of urban planning in China is such that it is often difficult to distinguish 'urban planning' from 'urban design'. For most of the Socialist period since 1949, the Chinese term for 'urban planning' (chengshi guihua) is distinct from the term for economic and social planning (jihua), which has been undertaken by different and generally more powerful government agencies. The word guihua (literally 'rule and delineate' or 'layout') connotes physical planning and design, and 'urban design' is how chengshi guihua was frequently translated in the 1980s, although the literal translation of 'urban design' (chengshi sheji) is typically in use now.
64. Yichun Xie and Frank J. Costa, Urban Planning in Socialist China: Theory and Practice. Cities 10, 2 (1993) 103-14
65. Yichun Xie and Frank J. Costa, Urban Design Practice in Socialist China. Third World Planning Review 13, 3 (1991) [277]-96
66. R. Yin-Wang Kwok, Trends of Urban Planning and Development in China, in Lawrence J. C. Ma and Edward W. Hanten (eds) Urban Development in Modern China. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981, pp. 147-93.
67. David Dowall, Urban Residential Redevelopment in the People's Republic of China. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, Institute of Urban and Regional Development Working Paper Series No. 591, 1993
68. Fulong Wu, Urban Restructuring in China's Emerging Market Economy: Towards a Framework for Analysis. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 21, 4 (1997) 640
69. M. Leaf, op. cit. [30]
70. Daniel Abramson, 'Marketization' and Institutions in Chinese Inner-City Neighborhood Redevelopment: A Commentary on 'Beijing's Old and Dilapidated Housing Renewal' by Lü Junhua. Cities 14, 2 (1997) 71-5.
71. Kam Wing Chan, Urbanization and Urban Infrastructure Services in the P.R.C., in Christine P. W. Wong (ed.) Financing Local Government in the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong; New York: Published for the Asian Development Bank by Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 83-125
72. William Valletta, The Land Administration Law of 1998 and Its Impact on Urban Development, in Chengri Ding and Yan Song (eds) Emerging Land and Housing Markets in China. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2005, pp. 59-87.
73. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Wenwu Baohu Fa [People's Republic of China Cultural Relics Protection Act], enacted 19 November 1982
74. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Chengshi Guihua Fa [People's Republic of China Urban Planning Act], enacted 1990
75. R. Marshall, op. cit. [2], p. 193.
76. Beijing Municipal Cultural Relics Bureau, Xin Bian Wenwu Gongzuo Shouce [New Edition of the Handbook for Cultural Relics Work]. Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Press, 1996, p. 457.
77. Beijing Municipal Institute of City Planning and Design, Beijing Chengshi Zongti Guihua Zhuanye Guihua Shuoming [Beijing Urban Master Plan: Explication by Specialized Topics] (1991-2010).
78. Guangqi Dong, Retrospect and Prospect of the Protection and Reconstruction of Old Beijing. China City Planning Review 10, 3 (1994).
79. A. M. Tung, op. cit. [1], p. 163.
80. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Wenwu Baohu Fa [People's Republic of China Cultural Relics Protection Act], enacted.
81. Beijing Municipal Cultural Relics Bureau, op. cit. [35].
82. Daniel Abramson, Beijing's Preservation Policy and the Fate of the Siheyuan. Traditional Design and Settlements Review 13, 1 (2001) 7-22.
83. Jinghui Wang, Preservation of Historic Heritage in China. Paper presented at International Conference on the Renewal and Development in Housing Areas of Traditional Chinese and European Cities. Xi'an, Quanzhou, and Beijing, China, 6-18 July 1995.
84. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission, Beijing Jiucheng 25 Pian Lishi Wenhua Baohu Qu Baohu Guihua [Conservation Planning of 25 Historic Areas in Beijing Old City]. Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Chubanshe, 2002.
85. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission, Beijing Lishi Wenhua Ming Cheng Beijing Huang Cheng Baohu Guihua [Conservation Plan for the Historic City of Beijing and Imperial City of Beijing]. Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe [China Architecture and Building Press], 2004, p. 29.
86. Yisan Ruan, Jinghui Wang and Lin Wang, Lishi Wenhua Mingcheng Baohu Lilun Yu Guihua [Theory and Planning of the Preservation of Famous Historic and Cultural Cities]. Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 1999, pp. 14-15
87. Jinghui Wang, Preservation of Historic Heritage in China, op. cit. [41].
88. Interview with Jinghui Wang, Professor and Senior Planner, Chinese Academy of Urban Planning and Design. Seattle, WA, 1 November 2002.
89. Victor Sit, Beijing: The Nature and Planning of Chinese Capital City. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1995, pp. 251-4
90. Liangyong Wu, op. cit. [19], pp. 32-8.
91. Liangyong Wu, ibid., pp. 32-5.
92. '1983 nian, zhonggong zhongyang, guowuyuan yuanze pizhun Beijing chengshi jianshe zongti guihua fang'an shi tichu: "Beijing shi woguo de shoudu, you shi lishi wenhua mingcheng. Beijing de guihua he jianshe, yao fanyingchu zhonghua minzu de lishi wenhua, geming chuantong he shehui zhuyi guojia shoudu de du te fengmao. Dui zhengui de geming shiji, lishi wenwu, gu jianzhu he juyou zhongyao yiyi de gu jianzhu yizhi, yao tuoshan baohu. Zai qi zhouwei diqu nei, jianzhuwu de tiliang, fengge bixu yu zhixiang xietiao. Yao zhubu de, chengpian de gaizao Beijing jiucheng"'. Beijing Municipal Institute of City Planning and Design, op. cit. [36], p. 48.
93. Guangqi Dong, Beijing Guihua Zhanlue Sikao [Reflections on Beijing's Planning Strategies]. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 1998, pp. 84-148, especially pp. 92-4 and 113-4. 'Fengmao' is translated usually as 'style and features', but it could also mean 'characteristic appearance' or 'image.' It is also a normatively positive term, compared with mianmao ('appearance' or 'appearance on its face'), or yuanmao (yuanyou de mianmao - 'original appearance') which are both more precise and normatively neutral. Whichever way 'fengmao' is translated, it has a very visual connotation, as distinct from the more general word tese ('character'), which was also used but less frequently. The word fengmao appears throughout the section of the Master Plan dealing with the preservation of the lishi wenhua mingcheng, usually in the form of chuantong fengmao ('traditional image'), although sometimes it is replaced by the less visual word chuantong tese ('traditional character').
94. Beijing Municipal Institute of City Planning and Design op. cit. [36], pp. 51-6.
95. 'West City District Gazetteer' Editorial Committee, Beijing Shi Xicheng Qu Dimingzhi [Beijing City West City District Gazetteer]. Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 1992, p. 292.
96. The Yinding Guanshan was but one of 'Eight Views of Yanjing' (Yanjing Bajing) identified by the Emperor Qianlong in 1752. As an expression, however, the 'Eight Views' far predates Qianlong's list; it has been interpreted various ways since at least the twelfth century AD. Beijing Baikequanshu [Encyclopedia of Beijing]. Beijing: Aolinpike Chubanshe [Olympic Publishing House], p. 470.
97. West City District Detailed Control Plan progress meeting, Beijing Municipal Planning Institute, 28 November 1996. The Capital Planning Commission was an oversight body of policy-making planners, while the Municipal Planning Bureau was responsible for enforcement and project-by-project approval. These agencies have since been merged.
98. Jasper Goldman, From Hutong to Hi-Rise: Explaining the Transformation of Old Beijing, 1990-2002. Masters thesis, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003, pp. 61-v82.
99. The economy of six-storey buildings is itself the product of an arbitrary standard in Beijing that requires any building higher than six storeys to have elevators. Standards in Guangzhou and other cities allowed walk-up buildings as high as nine storeys.
100. For more detail on the design and approval of specific commercial projects that broke the official height limits, see Chapter Four, 'The Malling of Wangfujing', in Anne-Marie Broudehoux, The Making and Selling of Post-Mao Beijing. London; New York: Routledge, 2004.
101. Renzhi Hou, op. cit. [26]
102. Marwyn Samuels and Carmelita Samuels, Beijing and the Power of Place in Modern China, in J. A. Agnew and J. S. Duncan (eds) The Power of Place: Bringing Together Geographical and Sociological Imaginations. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989, pp. 202-27
103. Zixuan Zhu and Reginald Kwok, Beijing: The Expression of National Political Ideology, in Won Bae Kim et al. (eds) Culture and the City in East Asia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 125-50
104. Hung Wu, Tiananmen Square: A Political History of Monuments. Representations 35 (1991) 84-117.
105. Yu Zhou, Beijing and the Development of Dual Central Business Districts. Geographical Review 88, 3 (1998) 429. Yu Zhou describes the impact of the East City, Chaoyang and West City district governments' competition for high-end office development, despite the Master Plan's specification that such development should be concentrated in Chaoyang District.
106. Gongwei Wang, Beijing Xi'erhuan Baitasi Diqu Jiucheng Gaizao Guihua Saomiao [Scan of the Old City Redevelopment Plan for the White Pagoda Temple Area Along Beijing's West Second Ring Road]. Beijing Fandichan [Beijing Real Estate] (1997) 24-5.
107. Lizhu Dong, Chunfeng Hutong Weifang Gaizao Qu Guihua Sheji Jianjie [a Brief Introduction to the Planning and Design of Chun Feng Hutong Dilapidated Housing Redevelopment District]. Beijing Guihua Jianshe [Beijing City Planning and Construction Review] 1 (1992) 34-6.
108. Interview with Xiao Jian, Director of the Xuanwu District Niu Jie Housing Management Office, 7 April 1994.
109. Ibid.
110. Zheng Lian, Housing Renewal in Beijing: Observation and Analysis. Masters thesis, Montreal: McGill University, 1995, p. 50
111. Wei Dong, An Ethnic Housing in Transition: Chinese Muslim Housing Architecture in the Framework of Resource Management and Identity of Place. Doctoral dissertation, Trondheim, Norway: Norwegian Institute of Technology, 1995, p. 58.
112. This tradition in fact originated in the Ming dynasty as the result of a law that expressly forbade Islamic ethnic groups from building 'foreign style buildings'. The mosque itself is a Ming structure, although earlier mosques had occupied its site since 1000 years ago. Beijing Baikequanshu [Encyclopedia of Beijing], p. 315.
113. Junhua Lü, Beijing's Old and Dilapidated Housing Renewal (Part I). China City Planning Review 9, 3 (1993) 27-35.
114. Interview with Yan Yuying, Relocation Director for the West City District Old and Dilapidated Housing Renewal Office, 18 December 1994. Both the developer and student designers, however, proposed to keep the mosque and its community in place. Tsinghua University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Beijing Urban Design Studio, Longfusi Market, Deshengmenwai, Xiangshan [Beijing and Cambridge, MA]: Tsinghua University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1992
115. Interview with Xu Jingyun, Chief Architect, Beijing Shi Zhuzhai Jianshe Zong Gongsi [Beijing Municipal General Housing Construction Company], Beijing, 22 July 1993.
116. Dabei Zhang, Shi Qu Lingdao Dao De-Wai Qingzhensi Shigong Xianchang Jiancha Gongzuo [Municipal and District Leaders Conduct an on-Site Inspection of the Construction of De-Wai Mosque] [Internet news service]. Beijing Huarong, 2005, available from http://www.bjhr.com.cn/ news/displaynewscentre1.asp?ArticleID=668 (accessed 22 May 2006).
117. Beijing Municipal Government Capital Administrative Document No. 58, Beijing Wenwu Shiye Fazhan Wu Nian Guihua, 1995-1999 [Beijing Cultural Relics Development Five-Year Plan, 1995-1999], 1995.
118. Tsinghua University School of Architecture Department of City Planning and Design and Trondheim University Norwegian Institute of Technology Faculty of Architecture, Some Tentative Schemes for the Preservation of a Historic Urban Landscape: The Nanchizi Renewal Project. Beijing, 1995. The reference to the Rue de Rivoli was made in discussion about Beichizi Dajie among architectural faculty at Tsinghua University in April 1993.
119. J. Goldman, op. cit. [53]
120. Bai Chen, Jin Siheyuan Xian Dei Shua Ka: You Chu You Wei You 'Shuang Qi' Nanchizi Lao Zhuhu Zuo Huiqian (to Enter the Siheyuan, First Swipe Your Card: Old Nanchizi Residents Return to Kitchens, Bathrooms, Gas Cooking and Heating.), Beijing Qingnian Bao [Beijing Youth Daily], 1 September 2003.
121. For a detailed discussion of how 'Qing style' has been interpreted in the development of new luxury courtyard houses, and what alternative designs for contextual neighbourhood redevelopment have been proposed, see D. Abramson, op. cit. [40].
122. Junhua Lü, op. cit. [61].
123. Tongji University Urban Planning Research Lab, Zhongguo Chengshi Jianshe Shi [History of Chinese Urban Construction]. Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe [China Architecture and Building Press], 1985, p. 80. The attention in this book is justified because the block illustrated how well the courtyard house typology could be adapted to suit a north-south-orientated grid as well as an east-west-orientated one. What is odd is that the image is often confused with the classic condition itself, as has happened even in this textbook.
124. For another example, see Jun Wang, op. cit. [19], p. 17.
125. Compare maps on pp. 27-8 and 31-2 in Renzhi Hou, Beijing Lishi Ditu Ji [Historical Atlas of Beijing]. Beijing, 1988.
126. Guangqi Dong, Chao Yang Men Nei Neighborhood Redevelopment Project Meeting, with Dong Guangqi, Vice Director of the Beijing Municipal Institute of Urban Planning and Design; Xu Jingyun, Chief Architect of the Beijing Municipal General Housing Construction Company; and Professor Lü Junhua's Design Team at Tsinghua University. Beijing, 7 October 1992 argued for the preservation of hutong character (as distinct from the preservation of siheyuan) as early as 1992. In helping to draft the West City District Detailed Regulatory Plan in 1997, the author proposed a plan for the preservation of a network of hutong in areas that were to be otherwise redeveloped. The plan called for a more selective application of height limits, so that high buildings could be allowed officially in locations where they would not impinge on the experience of being in the hutong. District officials rejected this proposal; apart from the technical difficulties of reconciling it with such priorities as the favouring of automobile access and the prevailing infrastructure provision practices (which generally involved each utility laying its lines without coordination between them), they also simply did not recognize the functional and symbolic value of the hutong as a viable spatial system in its own right
127. Liangyong Wu, Beijing Jiucheng Yu Ju'er Hutong [the Old City of Beijing and Its Ju'er Hutong Neighborhood]. Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe [China Architecture and Building Press], 1994, pp. 76-81, 104-8
128. Liangyong Wu, op. cit. [19], pp. 69-78, 100-2.
129. Junhua Lü, Beijing's Old and Dilapidated Housing Renewal (Part Ii). China City Planning Review 9, 4 (1993).
130. Jun Wang, Gucheng De Aoyun Mingpian Ruhe Zhiban [How Are We Typesetting the Old City's Calling Card for the Olympics?] (16-23 April) Xin Dao Bao, 2003, available at http://www.xindb.com/188/tegao2.htm (accessed 11 March 2005)
131. Longwang Qian, Beijing: Yuanhe Jinjiao Shangpinfang Junjia Jingran Gaochu Chengqu 275 Yuan? [Beijing: Why Is the Average Commodity Housing Price in the near Suburbs Unexpectedly 275 Yuan Higher Than That of the Urban Area?] (11 May) China Price Information Network, 2004, available at http://www.cpic.gov.cn/free/redian/M_H_0_0228_040511.htm (accessed 11 March 2005)
132. Beijing Municipal Statistical Bureau, Beijing Municipal Statistical Bureau National Economic and Social Development Statistics Report for 2000 up to the Ninth Five-Year Plan Period (2 February 13:10:51) Beijing Statistical Information Net, 2001, available at www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/ tjgb/200206270053.htm (accessed 11 March 2005).
133. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission, op. cit. [42].
134. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission, op. cit. [43].
135. One of the new preservation districts, at Xianyukou, was established largely because it had an unusual north-south hutong layout somewhat like that of the demolished block depicted in Figure 7.
136. Xinmin Hua, op. cit. [26], accessed 15 March 2005.
137. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission, op. cit. [43], p. 25.
138. Ibid., pp. 37-9.
139. Ibid., p. 39.
140. Beijing Municipal City Planning Commission et al., Notice Concerning the Strengthening of Cultural Relics Preservation Work in the Course of Old and Dilapidated Housing Redevelopment. Capital Cultural Relics 247 (2001) 28 May.
141. Yan Zhang and Ke Fang, Is History Repeating Itself ? From Urban Renewal in the United States to Inner-City Redevelopment in China. Journal of Planning Education and Research 23, 3 (2004) 286-98
142. Tingwei Zhang, Urban Development and a Socialist Pro-Growth Coalition in Shanghai. Urban Affairs Review 37, 4 (2002) 475-99.
143. For an overview that considers Beijing and Shanghai among other developing-world cities, see Florian Steinberg, Conservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritage in Developing Countries. Habitat International 20, 3 (1996) 463-75.
144. For a detailed study of one city, see Arzu Kocabas, Urban Conservation in Istanbul: Evaluation and Re-Conceptualisation. Habitat International 30, 1 (2006) 107-26.
145. Zixuan Zhu and Guangzhong Zheng, Beijing Jiucheng Chuantong Geju Yu Guji Baohu Tantao [Discussion on the Traditional Layout of Beijing's Old City and the Preservation of Its Historic Sites], in Editorial board of Chengshi Guihua [Urban Planning] (ed.) Jiucheng Gaijian Guihua [Planning for Urban Renewal: A Compilation of Results to Date]. Beijing, c. 1986, pp. 1-29
146. Philippe Jonathan, Pékin - La Restructuration Du Centre Historique De Pékin: Projet D'urbanisme Et D'architecture Dans Le Quartier De Shishahai (Beijing Jiucheng Gaijian: Shishahai Diqu Guihua He Jianzhu Sheji Wenti) [Beijing: The Reconstruction of the Historic Centre of Beijing: Urbanism and Architecture Project in the Shishahai Neighborhood], Mémoire de fin d'étude. Paris and Beijing: Unité Pedagogique d'Architecture and Tsinghua University, 1982
147. André Casault, Understanding the Changes and Constants of the Courtyard House Neighborhoods in Beijing. Thesis for MS in Architectural Studies, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1988.
148. Also see, for example, the debates as described by Philippe Jonathan, and the small-scale preservation-orientated schemes produced by field researchers and joint studios in the mid-1980s between Tsinghua University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
149. Susan Stuebing and Garet Wohl, Beijing Studio. MIT East Asian Architecture and Planning Program Newsletter (1986) 2
150. James R. Richardson. Teaching Urban Design in Cross-Cultural Settings: The Beijing Urban Design Studio. Paper presented at 28th Annual Conference of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1986.
151. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House, 1961, p. 310.
152. Setha Low et al., Recapturing Erased Histories: Ethnicity, Design, and Cultural Representation-a Case Study of Independence National Historical Park. Journal of Planning Education and Research 19, 4 (2002) 282-99.
153. M. C. Boyer, op. cit. [5], pp. 38-40.
154. Huanjia Wu, Beijing Chengshi Fengmao Zhi Wo Jian [Beijing's Urban Visual
155. M. C. Boyer, op. cit. [5], p. 33ff
156. A. M. Tung, op. cit. [1], p. 272.
157. Interview with Zhu Zixuan, Professor, Tsinghua University School of Architecture, Beijing, 4 April 1994
158. Liangyong Wu, op. cit. [19], pp. 60, 78-103.
159. Jianfei Zhu, Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420-1911. London; New York: Routledge Curzon, 2004, p. 247.
160. David Bray, Social Space and Governance in Urban China: The Danwei System from Origins to Reform. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005.
161. For a thorough discussion of panopticism as it relates to the history of social discipline in China, see Michael Robert Dutton, Policing and Punishment in China. Oakleigh, Vic., Australia; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
162. See the contributions to the special issue of Modern China, 19, 2 (1993).
163. See also Timothy Brook and B. Michael Frolic (eds), Civil Society in China. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1997
164. Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997
165. Gordon White, In Search of Civil Society: Market Reform and Social Change in Contemporary China. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
166. Tim G. Bunnell, Views from above and Below: The Petronas Twin Towers and/ in Contesting Visions of Development in Contemporary Malaysia. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 20, 1 (1999) 1-23.
167. Ibid.
168. Compare with R. Marshall, op. cit. [2]
169. Kris Olds, Globalizing Shanghai: The 'Global Intelligence Corps' and the Building of Pudong. Cities (Special Issue on Urban Social Impacts of China's Economic Reforms) 14, 2 (1997) 109-23.
170. Françoise Choay, The Modern City; Planning in the 19th Century. New York: G. Braziller, 1970, pp. 25-7.
171. M. Leaf, op. cit. [30].