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Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 67-114

When is two a crowd? The impact of federal action on state environmental regulation

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FEDERAL SYSTEM; STATE ROLE; STRATEGIC APPROACH;

EID: 33947494194     PISSN: 01478257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (25)

References (324)
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    • Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models
    • See 1141
    • See Robert V. Percival, Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models, 54 Md. L. Rev. 1141, 1147 (1995).
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  • 2
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    • The Fable of Federal Environmental Regulation: Reconsidering the Federal Role in Environmental Protection
    • See generally Jonathan H. Adler, The Fable of Federal Environmental Regulation: Reconsidering the Federal Role in Environmental Protection, 55 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 93 (2004).
    • (2004) Case W. Res. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 93
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 3
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    • These statutes include the Clean Air Act, Pub. L. No. 91-604
    • These statutes include the Clean Air Act, Pub. L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676 (1970),
    • (1970) Stat. , vol.84 , pp. 1676
  • 4
    • 33947547395 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-500, (later amended as the Clean Water Act and codified at 33 U.S.C §§ 1251-1387)
    • the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-500, 86 Stat. 898 (later amended as the Clean Water Act and codified at 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1387 (2000)),
    • (2000) Stat. , vol.86 , pp. 898
  • 5
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    • the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Pub. L. No. 92-512
    • the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Pub. L. No. 92-512, 86 Stat. 973 (1972),
    • (1972) Stat. , vol.86 , pp. 973
  • 6
    • 84875063307 scopus 로고
    • the Endangered Species Act, Pub. L. No. 93-205
    • the Endangered Species Act, Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884 (1973),
    • (1973) Stat. , vol.87 , pp. 884
  • 7
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    • the Safe Drinking Water Act, Pub. L. No. 93-523
    • the Safe Drinking Water Act, Pub. L. No. 93-523, 88 Stat. 1660 (1974),
    • (1974) Stat. , vol.88 , pp. 1660
  • 8
    • 84871605939 scopus 로고
    • the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Pub. L. No. 94-580
    • the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Pub. L. No. 94-580, 90 Stat. 2795 (1976),
    • (1976) Stat. , vol.90 , pp. 2795
  • 9
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    • and the Toxic Substances Control Act, Pub. L. No. 94-469
    • and the Toxic Substances Control Act, Pub. L. No. 94-469, 90 Stat. 2003 (1976).
    • (1976) Stat. , vol.90 , pp. 2003
  • 10
    • 84860544872 scopus 로고
    • The National Environmental Policy Act, Pub. L. No. 91-190, was also an important environmental statute, but it did not have as much of an impact on the federal-state balance in environmental law
    • The National Environmental Policy Act, Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat. 852 (1969), was also an important environmental statute, but it did not have as much of an impact on the federal-state balance in environmental law.
    • (1969) Stat. , vol.83 , pp. 852
  • 11
    • 27144482962 scopus 로고
    • Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models
    • See Percival, supra note 1, at 1159.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1159
    • Percival, R.V.1
  • 12
    • 33947518419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Role of State Law in an Era of Federal Preemption: Lessons from Environmental Regulation
    • See 203, ("[The role of states] is increasingly restricted to those areas not yet subject to extensive federal regulation ... and to the implementation and enforcement of permits issued pursuant to federal standards and procedures")
    • See John P. Dwyer, The Role of State Law in an Era of Federal Preemption: Lessons from Environmental Regulation, 60 Law & Contemp. Probs. 203, 205 (1997) ("[The role of states] is increasingly restricted to those areas not yet subject to extensive federal regulation ... and to the implementation and enforcement of permits issued pursuant to federal standards and procedures").
    • (1997) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.60 , pp. 205
    • Dwyer, J.P.1
  • 17
    • 3142731193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Revitalizing Environmental Federalism
    • Daniel C. Esty, Revitalizing Environmental Federalism, 95 Mich. L. Rev. 570 (1996);
    • (1996) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.95 , pp. 570
    • Esty, D.C.1
  • 18
    • 33947499204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Making Environmental Regulation More Adaptive Through Decentralization: The Case for Subsidiarity
    • James L. Huffman, Making Environmental Regulation More Adaptive Through Decentralization: The Case for Subsidiarity, 52 U. Kan. L. Rev. 1377 (2004);
    • (2004) U. Kan. L. Rev. , vol.52 , pp. 1377
    • Huffman, J.L.1
  • 19
    • 0041597407 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Reconsideration of Environmental Federalism
    • in 1, (John A. List & Aart de Zeeuw eds.)
    • Wallace E. Oates, A Reconsideration of Environmental Federalism, in Recent Advances in Environmental Economics 1, 22 (John A. List & Aart de Zeeuw eds., 2002);
    • (2002) Recent Advances in Environmental Economics , pp. 22
    • Oates, W.E.1
  • 20
    • 27144482962 scopus 로고
    • Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models
    • See 1141
    • Percival, supra note 1;
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1147
    • Percival, R.V.1
  • 21
    • 21944447398 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Race to the Bottom and Federal Environmental Regulation: A Response to Critics
    • 535
    • Richard L. Revesz, The Race to the Bottom and Federal Environmental Regulation: A Response to Critics, 82 Minn. L. Rev. 535, 536-37 (1997);
    • (1997) Minn. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 536-537
    • Revesz, R.L.1
  • 22
    • 0000584741 scopus 로고
    • Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the "Race to the Bottom" Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation
    • [hereinafter Revesz, Rehabilitating]. Even analysts that are highly skeptical of the benefits of granting states greater control over environmental policy decisions acknowledge that some measure of decentralization is warranted
    • Richard L. Revesz, Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the "Race to the Bottom" Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation, 67 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1210 (1992) [hereinafter Revesz, Rehabilitating]. Even analysts that are highly skeptical of the benefits of granting states greater control over environmental policy decisions acknowledge that some measure of decentralization is warranted.
    • (1992) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.67 , pp. 1210
    • Revesz, R.L.1
  • 23
    • 3142731193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Revitalizing Environmental Federalism
    • See, e.g., (endorsing a "middle road" between centralization and decentralization)
    • See, e.g., Esty at 653 (endorsing a "middle road" between centralization and decentralization);
    • (1996) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.95 , pp. 653
    • Esty, D.C.1
  • 24
    • 33947520933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EPA and Its Sisters at 30: Devolution, Revolution, or Reform?
    • 11086, (calling for "accountable devolution")
    • Rena I. Steinzor, EPA and Its Sisters at 30: Devolution, Revolution, or Reform?, 31 Envtl. L. Rep. 11086, 11094 (2001) (calling for "accountable devolution").
    • (2001) Envtl. L. Rep. , vol.31 , pp. 11094
    • Steinzor, R.I.1
  • 25
    • 0347141446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a"Race" and Is It" To the Bottom"?
    • For critiques of decentralization, see, for example
    • For critiques of decentralization, see, for example, Kirsten H. Engel, State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a "Race" and Is It "To the Bottom"?, 48 Hastings L.J. 271 (1996-97);
    • (1996) Hastings L.J. , vol.48 , pp. 271
    • Engel, K.H.1
  • 27
    • 0346685325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Devolution and the Public Health
    • Rena I. Steinzor, Devolution and the Public Health, 24 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 351 (2000);
    • (2000) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.24 , pp. 351
    • Steinzor, R.I.1
  • 28
    • 0002837417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law
    • Peter P. Swire, The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law, 14 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 67 (1996).
    • (1996) Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 67
    • Swire, P.P.1
  • 29
    • 33947540516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is important to note that a suboptimal regulatory regime could either over-regulate or under-regulate. In some environmental literature, however, there is a greater concern that states will under-regulate absent active federal participation in environmental protection.
  • 30
    • 4344686418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, some commentators fear that interjurisdictional competition for economic investment will produce a "race to the bottom" that leads to systematic underprotection of environmental values. See, e.g., (the race-to-the-bottom theory is "one of the central underpinnings of federal environmental regulation"
    • For example, some commentators fear that interjurisdictional competition for economic investment will produce a "race to the bottom" that leads to systematic underprotection of environmental values. See, e.g., Clifford Recthschaffen & David L. Markell, Reinventing Environmental Enforcement & The State/Federal Relationship 22-25 (2003) (the race-to-the-bottom theory is "one of the central underpinnings of federal environmental regulation"
    • (2003) Reinventing Environmental Enforcement & the State/Federal Relationship , pp. 22-25
    • Recthschaffen, C.1    Markell, D.L.2
  • 31
    • 3142731193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Revitalizing Environmental Federalism
    • (quoting Esty, supra note 5, at 628));
    • (1996) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.95 , pp. 628
    • Esty, D.C.1
  • 32
    • 0013340997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (noting "a widespread belief that competition among jurisdictions poses a danger of a mutually-destructive 'race to the bottom'")
    • William A. Fischel, The Home Voter Hypothesis 162 (2001) (noting "a widespread belief that competition among jurisdictions poses a danger of a mutually-destructive 'race to the bottom'");
    • (2001) The Home Voter Hypothesis , pp. 162
    • Fischel, W.A.1
  • 33
    • 0002837417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law
    • Swire, supra note 6;
    • (1996) Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 67
    • Swire, P.P.1
  • 34
    • 0347141446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a "Race" and Is It" To the Bottom"?
    • Engel, supra note 6.
    • (1996) Hastings L.J. , vol.48 , pp. 271
    • Engel, K.H.1
  • 35
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ("[S]tate regulation is far less well understood than federal regulation, though it is no less important."). In this regard, the Teske volume is an important addition to the literature
    • See Paul Teske, Regulation in the States 8 (2004) ("[S]tate regulation is far less well understood than federal regulation, though it is no less important."). In this regard, the Teske volume is an important addition to the literature.
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 8
    • Teske, P.1
  • 36
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • See [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch]
    • See Jonathan H. Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism, 14 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. 130 (2005) [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch];
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 130
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 37
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environmental Regulation
    • [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism]
    • Jonathan H. Adler, Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environmental Regulation, 90 Iowa L. Rev. 377 (2005) [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism];
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 377
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 38
    • 33947546495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Fable of Federal Environmental Regulation: Reconsidering the Federal Role in Environmental Protection
    • Adler, supra note 2;
    • (2004) Case W. Res. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 93
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 40
    • 4344585054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Ducks Stop Here? The Environmental Challenge to Federalism
    • 205
    • Jonathan H. Adler, The Ducks Stop Here? The Environmental Challenge to Federalism, 9 Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. 205, 226 (2001);
    • (2001) Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. , vol.9 , pp. 226
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 41
    • 0005826748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wetlands, Waterfowl, and the Menace of Mr. Wilson: Commerce Clause Jurisprudence and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation
    • [hereinafter Adler, Wetlands]
    • Jonathan H. Adler, Wetlands, Waterfowl, and the Menace of Mr. Wilson: Commerce Clause Jurisprudence and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation, 29 Envtl. L. 1 (1999) [hereinafter Adler, Wetlands];
    • (1999) Envtl. L. , vol.29 , pp. 1
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 42
    • 33947525731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Green Aspects of Printz: The Revival of Federalism and Its Implications for Environmental Law
    • Comment
    • Jonathan H. Adler, Comment, The Green Aspects of Printz: The Revival of Federalism and Its Implications for Environmental Law, 6 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 573 (1998).
    • (1998) Geo. Mason L. Rev. , vol.6 , pp. 573
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 43
    • 0346686823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federal and State Preemption of Environmental Law: A Critical Analysis
    • For articulations of the contrary position, see, for example, 237
    • For articulations of the contrary position, see, for example, Paul S. Weiland, Federal and State Preemption of Environmental Law: A Critical Analysis, 24 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 237, 242 (2000),
    • (2000) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.24 , pp. 242
    • Weiland, P.S.1
  • 44
    • 0346685325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Devolution and the Public Health
    • arguing that federal "minimum standards may raise the bar by establishing a baseline of protection" and "foreclose the possibility of a race to the bottom or race to laxity"
    • arguing that federal "minimum standards may raise the bar by establishing a baseline of protection" and "foreclose the possibility of a race to the bottom or race to laxity," and Steinzor, supra note 6.
    • (2000) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.24 , pp. 351
    • Steinzor, R.I.1
  • 45
    • 33947507722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It should be noted that increases in the stringency of environmental regulation will not necessarily produce net increases in social welfare. Insofar as the costs of increased environmental regulation, economic and otherwise, are greater than the benefits, increased regulation will reduce social welfare. However, insofar as one assumes that existing environmental regulations are under-protective, the potential for federal regulations to discourage greater protection at the state level should be of some concern. See also infra Part IV.
  • 46
    • 33947541095 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Identifying and quantifying the extent of any such crowding out and other indirect effects of non-preemptive federal regulation on state regulatory activities in the environmental and other regulatory contexts is a subject for subsequent empirical investigation, and lies beyond the scope of this Article.
  • 47
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    • Free & Green: A New Approach to Environmental Protection
    • See generally Jonathan H. Adler, Free & Green: A New Approach to Environmental Protection, 24 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 653 (2001);
    • (2001) Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y , vol.24 , pp. 653
    • Adler, J.H.1
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    • Markets and the Environment: A Critical Reappraisal
    • Fred L. Smith, Jr., Markets and the Environment: A Critical Reappraisal, 13 Contemp. Econ. Pol'y 62 (1995);
    • (1995) Contemp. Econ. Pol'y , vol.13 , pp. 62
    • Smith Jr., F.L.1
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    • A Free-Market Environmental Program
    • Fred L. Smith, Jr., A Free-Market Environmental Program, 11 Cato J. 457 (1992).
    • (1992) Cato J. , vol.11 , pp. 457
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    • Politics and Procedure in Environmental Law
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    • Daniel A. Farber, Politics and Procedure in Environmental Law, 8 J.L. Econ. & Org. 59, 61 (1992).
    • (1992) J.L. Econ. & Org. , vol.8 , pp. 61
    • Farber, D.A.1
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    • See, e.g., (stating that some viewed the prismatic colors of pollution on the Cuyahoga River as "the sweetest colors a river ever had"). External factors also affected the level of concern about waste management and other environmental practices
    • See, e.g., William Donahue Ellis, The Cuyahoga 157 (1966) (stating that some viewed the prismatic colors of pollution on the Cuyahoga River as "the sweetest colors a river ever had"). External factors also affected the level of concern about waste management and other environmental practices.
    • (1966) The Cuyahoga , pp. 157
    • Ellis, W.D.1
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    • See, e.g., (noting that wartime imperatives reduced concern for industrial waste management during World War II)
    • See, e.g., Craig E. Colten & Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste Before EPA 139-41 (1996) (noting that wartime imperatives reduced concern for industrial waste management during World War II).
    • (1996) The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste Before EPA , pp. 139-141
    • Colten, C.E.1    Skinner, P.N.2
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    • 33947542919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For examples of how federal policy has encouraged environmental harm, see generally (Donald R. Leal & Roger E. Meiners eds.)
    • For examples of how federal policy has encouraged environmental harm, see generally Government vs. Environment (Donald R. Leal & Roger E. Meiners eds., 2002).
    • (2002) Government Vs. Environment
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    • The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism
    • See also 487, ("During the Progressive Era ... most federal laws were not passed to preserve natural resources but to develop them")
    • See also Jason Scott Johnston, The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism, 74 U. Colo. L. Rev. 487, 514 (2003) ("During the Progressive Era ... most federal laws were not passed to preserve natural resources but to develop them.").
    • (2003) U. Colo. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 514
    • Johnston, J.S.1
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    • Federal Flood Policies: 150 Years of Environmental Mischief
    • see also in (Donald R. Leal & Roger E. Meiners eds.)
    • see also David E. Gerard, Federal Flood Policies: 150 Years of Environmental Mischief, in Government vs. Environment, supra note 18, at 59-77.
    • (2002) Government Vs. Environment , pp. 59-77
    • Gerard, D.E.1
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    • War on Wildlife
    • See in (Donald R. Leal & Roger E. Meiners eds.)
    • See J. Bishop Grewell, War on Wildlife, in Government vs. Environment, supra note 18, at 97-121.
    • (2002) Government Vs. Environment , pp. 97-121
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    • Silent Springs and Silent Villages: Pesticides and the Trampling of Property Rights
    • See in (Donald R. Leal & Roger E. Meiners eds.)
    • See Roger E. Meiners & Andrew P. Morriss, Silent Springs and Silent Villages: Pesticides and the Trampling of Property Rights, in Government vs. Environment, supra note 18, at 15-37.
    • (2002) Government Vs. Environment , pp. 15-37
    • Meiners, R.E.1    Morriss, A.P.2
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    • History of Air Pollution Legislation in the United States
    • 44
    • See Arthur C. Stern, History of Air Pollution Legislation in the United States, 32 J. Air Pollution Control Ass'n 44, 44 (1982).
    • (1982) J. Air Pollution Control Ass'n , vol.32 , pp. 44
    • Stern, A.C.1
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    • The Fable of Federal Environmental Regulation: Reconsidering the Federal Role in Environmental Protection
    • See Adler, supra note 2, at 98-100;
    • (2004) Case W. Res. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 98-100
    • Adler, J.H.1
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    • Federalism and Environmental Regulation: A Public Choice Analysis
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    • Richard L. Revesz, Federalism and Environmental Regulation: A Public Choice Analysis, 115 Harv. L. Rev. 553, 577 (2001).
    • (2001) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.115 , pp. 577
    • Revesz, R.L.1
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    • ("[T]he wealthier the society, the more it can afford to research, develop, and install the technologies necessary for a cleaner environment")
    • Goklany, supra note 22, at 5 ("[T]he wealthier the society, the more it can afford to research, develop, and install the technologies necessary for a cleaner environment.").
    • (1999) Clearing the Air: The Real Story of the War on Air Pollution , pp. 5
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    • Environmental Kuznets Curves: A Review of Findings, Methods, and Policy Implications
    • See (Apr.)
    • See Bruce Yandle, Madhusudan Bhattarai & Maya Vijayaraghavan, Environmental Kuznets Curves: A Review of Findings, Methods, and Policy Implications, PERC Research Study 02-1 (Apr. 2004);
    • (2004) PERC Research Study 02-1
    • Yandle, B.1    Bhattarai, M.2    Vijayaraghavan, M.3
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    • see also (summarizing research finding that willingness to pay for environmental protection increases with income)
    • see also Richard L. Stroup, Eco-nomics: What Everyone Should Know about Economics and the Environment 13-14 (2003) (summarizing research finding that willingness to pay for environmental protection increases with income);
    • (2003) Eco-nomics: What Everyone Should Know About Economics and the Environment , pp. 13-14
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    • On the Market for Ecosystem Control
    • 129, ("There is abundant evidence that the demand for outdoor recreation and environmental amenities increases with national income")
    • Jason Scott Johnston, On the Market for Ecosystem Control, 21 Va. Envtl. L.J. 129, 146 (2002) ("There is abundant evidence that the demand for outdoor recreation and environmental amenities increases with national income.");
    • (2002) Va. Envtl. L.J. , vol.21 , pp. 146
    • Johnston, J.S.1
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    • Kenneth E. McConnell, Income and the Demand for Environmental Quality, 2 Envtl. & Dev. Econ. 383, 385-86 (1997) (reporting on empirical evidence of an Environmental Kuznets Curve);
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    • McConnell, K.E.1
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    • Demand for Environmental Goods: Evidence from Voting Patterns on California Initiatives
    • (noting that for most environmental goods demand rises with income)
    • Matthew E. Kahn & John G. Matsusaka, Demand for Environmental Goods: Evidence from Voting Patterns on California Initiatives, 40 J.L. & Econ. 137 (1997) (noting that for most environmental goods demand rises with income);
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    • Trade and the Environment: What Worries the Developing Countries?
    • 705, (noting that "the demand for improved environmental quality tends to rise with income"). Not all analysts accept that the Environmental Kuznets Curve can be generalized across all societies or applied to all environmental problems, or even that it accurately describes observed trends in some developed nations
    • Patrick Low, Trade and the Environment: What Worries the Developing Countries?, 23 Envtl. L. 705, 706 (1993) (noting that "the demand for improved environmental quality tends to rise with income"). Not all analysts accept that the Environmental Kuznets Curve can be generalized across all societies or applied to all environmental problems, or even that it accurately describes observed trends in some developed nations.
    • (1993) Envtl. L. , vol.23 , pp. 706
    • Low, P.1
  • 74
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    • Confronting the Environmental Kuznets Curve
    • See, e.g., Susmita Dasgupta, et al., Confronting the Environmental Kuznets Curve, 16 J. Econ. Persp. 147 (2002);
    • (2002) J. Econ. Persp. , vol.16 , pp. 147
    • Dasgupta, S.1
  • 75
    • 2842524006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Progress on the Environmental Kuznets Curve?
    • David I. Stern, Progress on the Environmental Kuznets Curve?, 3 Env't & Dev. Econ. 173 (1998).
    • (1998) Env't & Dev. Econ. , vol.3 , pp. 173
    • Stern, D.I.1
  • 78
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    • The Fable of Federal Environmental Regulation: Reconsidering the Federal Role in Environmental Protection
    • See Adler, supra note 2, at 100.
    • (2004) Case W. Res. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 100
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 79
    • 33947518427 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In addition, as discussed infra Part III, the adoption of federal regulations may themselves influence when a state goes through the environmental transition for a given environmental concern.
  • 80
    • 33947500062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism
    • See ("for most of American history, American states and regions have exhibited tremendous variation in both their current economic development opportunities and the extent to which prior development has transformed their natural environments")
    • See Johnston, supra note 18, at 494-95 ("for most of American history, American states and regions have exhibited tremendous variation in both their current economic development opportunities and the extent to which prior development has transformed their natural environments.").
    • (2003) U. Colo. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 494-495
    • Johnston, J.S.1
  • 81
    • 33947542665 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 26, 27, 28 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 26, 27, 28 and accompanying text.
  • 82
    • 33947511440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This increase in the demand for environmental protection should also be driven, in part, by the increased marginal value of undeveloped land or resources as the supply dwindles. For example, holding all else equal, the marginal value of each acre of undeveloped land in a sparsely populated and largely undeveloped state should be less than the value of an acre in a highly developed state.
  • 83
    • 0003975334 scopus 로고
    • See generally Office of Tech Assessment
    • See generally Office of Tech. Assessment, Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation 37-60 (1984).
    • (1984) Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation , pp. 37-60
  • 84
    • 33947515311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Likewise, a state in which coastal tourism industries predominate is likely to have different priorities within the realm of coastal protection than a state in which fishing or other coastal-related industries are more dominant.
  • 85
    • 0347528266 scopus 로고
    • The Practice of Federalism Under the Clean Air Act
    • See, e.g., 1183, (noting that "[t]he knowledge necessary to administer any air pollution control program ... can be found only at the local level."). This observation is based on the insights of Nobel Laureate economist F. A. Hayek, who observed "[t]he knowledge of the circumstances of which we must make use never exists in concentrated or integrated form but solely as the dispersed bits of incomplete and frequently contradictory knowledge which all the separate individuals possess"
    • See, e.g., John Dwyer, The Practice of Federalism Under the Clean Air Act, 54 Md. L. Rev. 1183, 1218 (1995) (noting that "[t]he knowledge necessary to administer any air pollution control program ... can be found only at the local level."). This observation is based on the insights of Nobel Laureate economist F. A. Hayek, who observed "[t]he knowledge of the circumstances of which we must make use never exists in concentrated or integrated form but solely as the dispersed bits of incomplete and frequently contradictory knowledge which all the separate individuals possess."
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1218
    • Dwyer, J.1
  • 86
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    • The Use of Knowledge in Society
    • 519
    • F. A. Hayek, The Use of Knowledge in Society, 35 Am. Econ. Rev. 519, 519 (1945).
    • (1945) Am. Econ. Rev. , vol.35 , pp. 519
    • Hayek, F.A.1
  • 87
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • For more on the "knowledge problem" in environmental policy, see [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch]
    • For more on the "knowledge problem" in environmental policy, see Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supra note 10, at 165-66.
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 165-166
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 88
    • 0004004563 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ("Federal regulators never have been and never will be able to acquire and assimilate the enormous amount of information necessary to make optimal regulatory judgments that reflect the technical requirements of particular locations and pollution sources")
    • Butler & Macey, supra note 5, at 27 ("Federal regulators never have been and never will be able to acquire and assimilate the enormous amount of information necessary to make optimal regulatory judgments that reflect the technical requirements of particular locations and pollution sources.").
    • (1996) Using Federalism to Improve Environmental Policy , pp. 27
    • Butler, H.1    Macey, J.R.2
  • 90
    • 0039559236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clean Air Federalism: Do States Race to the Bottom?
    • (citing Matthew Potosky, Clean Air Federalism: Do States Race to the Bottom?, 61 Pub. Admin. Rev. 335 (2001)).
    • (2001) Pub. Admin. Rev. , vol.61 , pp. 335
    • Potosky, M.1
  • 92
    • 33947546783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Different Kind of "Republican Moment" in Environmental Law
    • See in 369, (Jim Chen ed.). There are some potential problems with the use of LCV vote ratings to measure the environmental nature of a given state's politics. First, some would argue that the LCV vote ratings are politicized, if not somewhat partisan. In this critique, the LCV vote ratings do not measure whether a given politician is "pro-environment" so much as whether he or she votes in line with Washington, D.C.-based environmental organizations and that such organizations have institutional or political interests which may conflict with some environmental goals. Insofar as such groups do not maintain a monopoly on what policy positions are pro-environment, a politician could receive a lower vote rating despite his or her attentiveness to environmental concerns. At the same time, because environmental issues may differ at the state and federal level, a pro-environment vote rating in Congress may not correlate with attentiveness to environmental concerns in a given state.
    • See Richard J. Lazarus, A Different Kind of "Republican Moment" in Environmental Law, in The Jurisdynamics of Environmental Protection: Change and the Pragmatic Voice in Environmental Law 369, 374-81 (Jim Chen ed., 2003). There are some potential problems with the use of LCV vote ratings to measure the environmental nature of a given state's politics. First, some would argue that the LCV vote ratings are politicized, if not somewhat partisan. In this critique, the LCV vote ratings do not measure whether a given politician is "pro-environment" so much as whether he or she votes in line with Washington, D.C.-based environmental organizations and that such organizations have institutional or political interests which may conflict with some environmental goals. Insofar as such groups do not maintain a monopoly on what policy positions are pro-environment, a politician could receive a lower vote rating despite his or her attentiveness to environmental concerns. At the same time, because environmental issues may differ at the state and federal level, a pro-environment vote rating in Congress may not correlate with attentiveness to environmental concerns in a given state. It may be that in a given state, environmental issues addressed by state and local governments are more important to voters than environmental issues typically addressed by the federal government, or vice versa. It is not altogether clear that state concern for local environmental problems would necessarily translate into support for politicians that are supportive of measures to address national, or even international, environmental problems. Nonetheless, LCV ratings are almost certainly measuring a factor that influences state regulatory choices, even if only the political influence of mainstream environmental interest groups.
    • (2003) The Jurisdynamics of Environmental Protection: Change and the Pragmatic Voice in Environmental Law , pp. 374-381
    • Lazarus, R.J.1
  • 95
    • 84937314764 scopus 로고
    • Measuring U.S. State Legislative Professionalism: An Evaluation of Five Indices
    • Chris Mooney, Measuring U.S. State Legislative Professionalism: An Evaluation of Five Indices, 26 St. & Loc. Gov't Rev. 70 (1994).
    • (1994) St. & Loc. Gov't Rev. , vol.26 , pp. 70
    • Mooney, C.1
  • 96
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (finding correlation between party control of legislature and state regulatory activity)
    • See Teske, supra note 9, at 180-81 (finding correlation between party control of legislature and state regulatory activity).
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 180-181
    • Teske, P.1
  • 97
    • 0001654516 scopus 로고
    • Pyramids of Sacrifice?: Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy
    • 1196
    • See Richard B. Stewart, Pyramids of Sacrifice?: Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy, 86 Yale L.J. 1196, 1211-12 (1977);
    • (1977) Yale L.J. , vol.86 , pp. 1211-1212
    • Stewart, R.B.1
  • 101
    • 0347141446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a "Race" and Is It "To the Bottom"?
    • see also Engel, supra note 6;
    • (1996) Hastings L.J. , vol.48 , pp. 271
    • Engel, K.H.1
  • 102
    • 0002837417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdiction in Environmental Law
    • Swire, supra note 6.
    • (1996) Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 67
    • Swire, P.P.1
  • 103
    • 0000584741 scopus 로고
    • Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the "Race to the Bottom" Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation
    • See, e.g., Revesz, Rehabilitating, supra note 5;
    • (1992) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.67 , pp. 1210
    • Revesz, R.L.1
  • 104
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • see also Adler, [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch]
    • see also Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supranote 10, at 151-54.
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.130 , pp. 151-154
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 105
    • 0347141446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a "Race" and Is It "To the Bottom"?
    • Engel, supra note 6.
    • (1996) Hasting L.J. , vol.48 , pp. 271
    • Engel, H.E.1
  • 106
    • 0042525695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Natural Experiment on the 'Race to the Bottom' Hypothesis: Testing for Stochastic Dominance in Temporal Pollution Trends
    • Several economic studies have failed to find empirical evidence of any race to the bottom in environmental policy. See, e.g
    • Several economic studies have failed to find empirical evidence of any race to the bottom in environmental policy. See, e.g., Daniel L. Millimet & John A. List, A Natural Experiment on the 'Race to the Bottom' Hypothesis: Testing for Stochastic Dominance in Temporal Pollution Trends, 65 Oxford Bull. Econ. & Stat. 395 (2003);
    • (2003) Oxford Bull. Econ. & Stat. , vol.65 , pp. 395
    • Millimet, D.L.1    List, J.A.2
  • 107
    • 0345550327 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assessing the Empirical Impact of Environmental Federalism
    • Daniel L. Millimet, Assessing the Empirical Impact of Environmental Federalism, 43 J. Regional Sci. 711 (2003);
    • (2003) J. Regional Sci. , vol.43 , pp. 711
    • Millimet, D.L.1
  • 108
    • 0033802034 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regulatory Federalism and Environmental Protection in the United States
    • John A. List & Shelby Gerking, Regulatory Federalism and Environmental Protection in the United States, 40 J. Regional Sci. 453 (2000);
    • (2000) J. Regional Sci. , vol.40 , pp. 453
    • List, J.A.1    Gerking, S.2
  • 110
    • 33947500062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism
    • See also (noting conditions that could produce strategic over-preservation of natural resources by local jurisdictions)
    • See also Johnston, supra note 18, at 517 (noting conditions that could produce strategic over-preservation of natural resources by local jurisdictions).
    • (2003) U. Colo. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 517
    • Johnston, J.S.1
  • 111
    • 0347173773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Golden Rules for Transboundary Pollution
    • See 931
    • See Thomas W. Merrill, Golden Rules for Transboundary Pollution, 46 Duke L.J. 931, 968-70 (1997);
    • (1997) Duke L.J. , vol.46 , pp. 968-970
    • Merrill, T.W.1
  • 112
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • see also [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch]
    • see also Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supra note 10, at 162-63.
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 162-163
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 113
    • 0041597407 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Reconsiderations of Environmental Federalism
    • in (John A. List & Aart de Zeeuw eds.) ("States appear to be 'pulled' to higher levels of abatement spending by more stringent measures in neighboring states, but relatively lax regulations nearby appear to have no effect on such expenditures.")
    • See Oates, supra note 5, at 15 ("States appear to be 'pulled' to higher levels of abatement spending by more stringent measures in neighboring states, but relatively lax regulations nearby appear to have no effect on such expenditures.");
    • (2002) Recent Advances Environmental Economics , pp. 15
    • Oates, W.E.1
  • 114
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (finding states are more likely to increase, rather than decrease, air quality regulation in response to actions taken in neighboring states, and concluding that" the race to the bottom is not a factor here")
    • Teske, supra note 9, at 180-81 (finding states are more likely to increase, rather than decrease, air quality regulation in response to actions taken in neighboring states, and concluding that "the race to the bottom is not a factor here");
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 180-181
    • Teske, P.1
  • 115
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (also finding no "race to the bottom" in groundwater regulation)
    • id. at 191-92 (also finding no "race to the bottom" in groundwater regulation).
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 191-192
    • Teske, P.1
  • 117
    • 33947518419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Role of State Law in an Era of Federal Preemption: Lessons from Environmental Regulation
    • See, e.g., ("For the most part, states are not genuinely autonomous regulators; they exercise regulatory authority only by congressional grace.")
    • See, e.g., Dwyer, supra note 4, at 203 ("For the most part, states are not genuinely autonomous regulators; they exercise regulatory authority only by congressional grace.").
    • (1997) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.60 , pp. 203
    • Dwyer, J.P.1
  • 118
    • 33947500062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism
    • One exception is 487, which considers the consequences of past and future centralization on state natural resource policy decisions
    • One exception is Johnston, supra note 18, which considers the consequences of past and future centralization on state natural resource policy decisions.
    • (2003) U. Colo. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 514
    • Johnston, J.S.1
  • 119
    • 33947519676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is also possible that while the aggregate level of environmental protection could increase, social welfare might decline because the costs of the increased levels of environmental protection are greater than the benefits.
  • 120
    • 33847117262 scopus 로고
    • Brown v. EPA
    • See, e.g., (9th Cir.) vacated, 431 U.S. 99 (1977)
    • See, e.g., Brown v. EPA, 521 F.2d 827 (9th Cir. 1975), vacated, 431 U.S. 99 (1977);
    • (1975) F.2d , vol.521 , pp. 827
  • 121
    • 33947496272 scopus 로고
    • Maryland v. EPA
    • (4th Cir.) vacated sub nom. EPA v. Brown, 431 U.S. 99 (1977)
    • Maryland v. EPA, 530 F.2d 215 (4th Cir. 1975), vacated sub nom. EPA v. Brown, 431 U.S. 99 (1977);
    • (1975) F.2d , vol.530 , pp. 215
  • 122
    • 33947496554 scopus 로고
    • District of Columbia v. Train
    • (D.C. Cir.) vacated sub nom. EPA v. Brown, 431 U.S. 99 (1977)
    • District of Columbia v. Train, 521 F.2d 971 (D.C. Cir. 1975), vacated sub nom. EPA v. Brown, 431 U.S. 99 (1977).
    • (1975) F.2d , vol.521 , pp. 971
  • 123
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environment Regulation
    • This litigation is summarized in [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism]
    • This litigation is summarized in Adler, Judicial Federalism, supra note 10, at 423.
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 423
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 124
    • 0001654516 scopus 로고
    • Payramids of Sacrifice?: Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy
    • 1196
    • See, e.g., Stewart, supra note 46.
    • (1977) Yale L.J. , vol.86 , pp. 1211-1212
    • Stewart, R.B.1
  • 125
    • 18344394307 scopus 로고
    • Gregory v. Ashcroft
    • 452
    • Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 457 (1991).
    • (1991) U.S. , vol.501 , pp. 457
  • 126
    • 33044493019 scopus 로고
    • New York v. United States
    • (holding that portions of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act Amendments unconstitutionally commandeer state governments)
    • New York v. United States, 505 U.S. 144 (1992) (holding that portions of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act Amendments unconstitutionally commandeer state governments).
    • (1992) U.S. , vol.505 , pp. 144
  • 127
    • 33947512039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ass'n of Cmty. Orgs. for Reform Now (ACORN) v. Edwards
    • (5th Cir.) (invalidating portions of the Lead Contamination Control Act)
    • Ass'n of Cmty. Orgs. for Reform Now (ACORN) v. Edwards, 81 F.3d 1387 (5th Cir. 1996) (invalidating portions of the Lead Contamination Control Act).
    • (1996) F.3d , vol.81 , pp. 1387
  • 128
    • 18344392397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Printz v. United States
    • See 898, ("[N]o case-by-case weighing of the burdens or benefits is necessary; such commands are fundamentally incompatible with our constitutional system of dual sovereignty.")
    • See Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898, 935 (1997) ("[N]o case-by-case weighing of the burdens or benefits is necessary; such commands are fundamentally incompatible with our constitutional system of dual sovereignty.").
    • (1997) U.S. , vol.521 , pp. 935
  • 129
    • 18344392397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Printz v. United States
    • There is language in Printz that suggests purely ministerial requirements might be exempt from the anti-commandeering rule, but the federal courts have not, as yet, found an attempted commandeering that was sufficiently immaterial to warrant an exception. See (O'Connor, J., concurring) (noting the Court "appropriately refrains from deciding whether other purely ministerial reporting requirements" represent unconstitutional commandeering of state governments)
    • There is language in Printz that suggests purely ministerial requirements might be exempt from the anti-commandeering rule, but the federal courts have not, as yet, found an attempted commandeering that was sufficiently immaterial to warrant an exception. See Printz, 521 U.S. at 936 (O'Connor, J., concurring) (noting the Court "appropriately refrains from deciding whether other purely ministerial reporting requirements" represent unconstitutional commandeering of state governments).
    • (1997) U.S. , vol.521 , pp. 936
  • 130
    • 33947528260 scopus 로고
    • Bd. of Natural Res. v. Brown
    • This may be due, in part, to the fact that relatively few statutes, environmental or otherwise, commandeer state governments. Two exceptions, the Forest Resources Conservation and Shortage Relief Act and a provision of the Lead Contamination Control Act, were invalidated by lower courts on commandeering grounds. See (9th Cir.)
    • This may be due, in part, to the fact that relatively few statutes, environmental or otherwise, commandeer state governments. Two exceptions, the Forest Resources Conservation and Shortage Relief Act and a provision of the Lead Contamination Control Act, were invalidated by lower courts on commandeering grounds. See Bd. of Natural Res. v. Brown, 992 F.2d 937 (9th Cir. 1993);
    • (1993) F.2d , vol.992 , pp. 937
  • 131
    • 33947512039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ACORN
    • A few such statutes in the environmental context remain, but these statutes have not been challenged in court
    • ACORN, 81 F.3d 1387. A few such statutes in the environmental context remain, but these statutes have not been challenged in court.
    • F.3d , vol.81 , pp. 1387
  • 132
    • 33947500968 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two examples are mandatory reporting requirements contained in the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), §§ 11001(a)-(c), 11003(e), 11022(a), 11022(e)(3)
    • Two examples are mandatory reporting requirements contained in the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), 42 U.S.C. §§ 11001(a)-(c), 11003(e), 11022(a), 11022(e)(3) (2000),
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 133
    • 33947494807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and the underground storage tank provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), § 6991a(c)
    • and the underground storage tank provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. § 6991a(c) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 134
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environmental Regulation
    • As these statutes impose minimal requirements on state governments, and the relevant programs are already in place, it is unlikely that these statutes will be challenged in the future. See [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism]
    • As these statutes impose minimal requirements on state governments, and the relevant programs are already in place, it is unlikely that these statutes will be challenged in the future. See Adler, Judicial Federalism, supra note 10, at 423-30.
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 423-430
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 135
    • 22544453128 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Strahan v. Coxe
    • Where federal courts have excused commandeering of state agencies in the environmental context, it has been by denying that commandeering is taking place. The court's order in Strahan v. Coxe arguably commandeered state officials under the federal Endangered Species Act, yet the First Circuit denied this was the case. See (1st Cir.)
    • Where federal courts have excused commandeering of state agencies in the environmental context, it has been by denying that commandeering is taking place. The court's order in Strahan v. Coxe arguably commandeered state officials under the federal Endangered Species Act, yet the First Circuit denied this was the case. See Strahan v. Coxe, 127 F.3d 155 (1st Cir. 1997);
    • (1997) F.3d , vol.127 , pp. 155
  • 136
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environment Regulation
    • [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism]
    • Adler, Judicial Federalism, supra note 10, at 429-30.
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 429-430
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 137
    • 33947521859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "Regulatory activity" here should be understood to include legislation and agency regulations, as well as judicial decrees that have a forward-looking regulatory effect, including tort judgments that create de facto standards for product safety or professional conduct.
  • 138
    • 33947536252 scopus 로고
    • Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. State Energy Res. Conservation & Dev. Comm'n
    • See ("It is well established that within Constitutional limits Congress may preempt state authority by so stating in express terms.")
    • See Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. State Energy Res. Conservation & Dev. Comm'n, 461 U.S. 190 (1983) ("It is well established that within Constitutional limits Congress may preempt state authority by so stating in express terms.").
    • (1983) U.S. , vol.461 , pp. 190
  • 139
    • 33947529679 scopus 로고
    • Gade v. Nat'l Solid Wastes Mgmt. Ass'n
    • 88
    • Gade v. Nat'l Solid Wastes Mgmt. Ass'n, 505 U.S. 88, 98 (1992)
    • (1992) U.S. , vol.505 , pp. 98
  • 140
    • 33947536817 scopus 로고
    • Fid. Fed. Sav. & Loan Ass'n v. De La Cuesta
    • (quoting) 141
    • (quoting Fid. Fed. Sav. & Loan Ass'n v. De La Cuesta, 458 U.S. 141, 153 (1982)).
    • (1982) U.S. , vol.458 , pp. 153
  • 141
    • 33947536817 scopus 로고
    • Fid. Fed. Sav. & Loan Ass'n v. De La Cuesta
    • (quoting) 141
    • Id.
    • (1982) U.S. , vol.458 , pp. 153
  • 142
    • 0036000776 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The "Conservative" Paths of the Rehnquist Court's Federalism Decisions
    • See Richard H. Fallon, Jr., The "Conservative" Paths of the Rehnquist Court's Federalism Decisions, 69 U. Chi. L. Rev. 429 (2002);
    • (2002) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.69 , pp. 429
    • Fallon Jr., R.H.1
  • 143
    • 33947546194 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Preemption in the Rehnquist Court: A Preliminary Empirical Assessment
    • Michael S. Greve & Jonathan Klick, Preemption in the Rehnquist Court: A Preliminary Empirical Assessment, 14 Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. 43 (2006).
    • (2006) Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 43
    • Greve, M.S.1    Klick, J.2
  • 144
    • 33947519965 scopus 로고
    • Wisc. Pub. Intervenor v. Mortier
    • See 597 ("When considering pre-emption, 'we start with the assumption that the historic police powers of the States were not to be superseded by the Federal Act unless that was the clear and manifest purpose of Congress'"
    • See Wisc. Pub. Intervenor v. Mortier, 501 U.S. 597, 605 (1991) ("When considering pre-emption, 'we start with the assumption that the historic police powers of the States were not to be superseded by the Federal Act unless that was the clear and manifest purpose of Congress.'"
    • (1991) U.S. , vol.501 , pp. 605
  • 145
    • 77954987093 scopus 로고
    • Rice v. Santa Fe Elevator Corp
    • (quoting) 218. Although this is the stated presumption, it is not clear how powerfully this presumption is applied in practice
    • (quoting Rice v. Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 U.S. 218, 230 (1947)). Although this is the stated presumption, it is not clear how powerfully this presumption is applied in practice.
    • (1947) U.S. , vol.331 , pp. 230
  • 146
    • 0348080698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Preemption
    • See Caleb Nelson, Preemption, 86 Va. L. Rev. 225 (2000);
    • (2000) Va. L. Rev. , vol.86 , pp. 225
    • Caleb, N.1
  • 147
    • 33947517496 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Preemption in Environmental Law: Formalism, Federalism Theory, and Default Rules
    • available at (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review). A revised version of this article will be included in a forthcoming book from AEI Press, edited by Richard Epstein and Michael Greve
    • Thomas W. Merrill, Preemption in Environmental Law: Formalism, Federalism Theory, and Default Rules, available at http://federalismproject.org/preemption/papers/ Merrill_Preemption_in_Environmental_Law.pdf (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review). A revised version of this article will be included in a forthcoming book from AEI Press, edited by Richard Epstein and Michael Greve.
    • Merrill, T.W.1
  • 148
    • 33746137450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Medtronic, Inc. v. Lohr
    • 470
    • Medtronic, Inc. v. Lohr, 518 U.S. 470, 485 (1996)
    • (1996) U.S. , vol.518 , pp. 485
  • 149
    • 33947503018 scopus 로고
    • Retail Clerks v. Schermerhorn
    • (quoting) 96
    • (quoting Retail Clerks v. Schermerhorn, 375 U.S. 96, 103 (1963));
    • (1963) U.S. , vol.375 , pp. 103
  • 150
    • 33947544075 scopus 로고
    • CSX Transp., Inc. v. Easterwood
    • see also 658, (Courts should "focus on the plain wording of the clause, which necessarily contains the best evidence of Congress' preemptive intent.")
    • see also CSX Transp., Inc. v. Easterwood, 507 U.S. 658, 664 (1993) (Courts should "focus on the plain wording of the clause, which necessarily contains the best evidence of Congress' preemptive intent.").
    • (1993) U.S. , vol.507 , pp. 664
  • 151
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (noting federal preemption has often been "designed to facilitate greater total deregulation"). In some cases the purpose of federal preemption is to replace one type of regulation with another. This still results in less regulation than if the federal regulation was adopted in addition to the state regulation. The effects of preemption across states may not be uniform, however. A federal statute that imposes a federal standard when only a handful of states have regulated will increase regulation in some jurisdictions at the same time that it reduces regulation by preempting preexisting rules elsewhere
    • See Teske, supra note 9, at 15 (noting federal preemption has often been "designed to facilitate greater total deregulation"). In some cases the purpose of federal preemption is to replace one type of regulation with another. This still results in less regulation than if the federal regulation was adopted in addition to the state regulation. The effects of preemption across states may not be uniform, however. A federal statute that imposes a federal standard when only a handful of states have regulated will increase regulation in some jurisdictions at the same time that it reduces regulation by preempting preexisting rules elsewhere.
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 15
    • Teske, P.1
  • 152
    • 33947515880 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The most obvious example, albeit a case of constitutional rather than statutory preemption, occurs under the "dormant commerce clause." States are precluded from adopting measures that discriminate against out-of-state trade not because it is assumed that such regulations will be adopted by Congress. Rather, there is a constitutional presumption against the adoption of such rules by any level of government, though Congress does retain the authority to adopt laws limiting the flow of interstate commerce or even delegating authority to the states to adopt such measures themselves. This division of authority "creates obstacles to states' enacting laws that are more protective of the environment"
    • The most obvious example, albeit a case of constitutional rather than statutory preemption, occurs under the "dormant commerce clause." States are precluded from adopting measures that discriminate against out-of-state trade not because it is assumed that such regulations will be adopted by Congress. Rather, there is a constitutional presumption against the adoption of such rules by any level of government, though Congress does retain the authority to adopt laws limiting the flow of interstate commerce or even delegating authority to the states to adopt such measures themselves. This division of authority "creates obstacles to states' enacting laws that are more protective of the environment." Richard J. Lazarus, The Making of Environmental Law 38 (2004).
    • (2004) The Making of Environmental Law , pp. 38
    • Lazarus, R.J.1
  • 153
    • 0346686823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federal and State Preemption of Environmental Law: A Critical Analysis
    • arguing the federal "minimum standards may raise the bar by establishing a baseline of protection" and "foreclose the possibility of a race to the bottom or race to laxity"
    • See Weiland, supra note 11, at 258-59.
    • (2000) Harv. Entl. L. Rev. , vol.24 , pp. 258-259
    • Weiland, P.1
  • 154
    • 33947498368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 68 and sources cited therein
    • See supra note 68 and sources cited therein.
  • 155
    • 0346686823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federal and State Preemption of Environmental Law: A Critical Analysis
    • See ("By creating a ceiling, environmental laws may allow the private sector to operate within a predictable and uniform environment.")
    • See Weiland, supra note 11, at 242 ("By creating a ceiling, environmental laws may allow the private sector to operate within a predictable and uniform environment.").
    • (2000) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.24 , pp. 242
    • Weiland, P.S.1
  • 156
    • 33947515302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Am. Chemistry Council v. Dep't of Transp
    • For a recent example, see No. 90-345 (D.C. Cir. Oct. 13) (in which trade associations sued a federal agency seeking more expansive regulation of hazardous waste transportation so as to provide for greater preemption of local rules). Similar arguments have been used to support federal preemption of state regulations and tort suits in other areas as well
    • For a recent example, see Am. Chemistry Council v. Dep't of Transp., No. 90-345 (D.C. Cir. Oct. 13, 2006) (in which trade associations sued a federal agency seeking more expansive regulation of hazardous waste transportation so as to provide for greater preemption of local rules). Similar arguments have been used to support federal preemption of state regulations and tort suits in other areas as well.
    • (2006)
  • 157
    • 33947225748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rules Would Limit Lawsuits; U.S. Agencies Seek to Preempt States
    • See, e.g., Feb. 16, (preemption by Consumer Product Safety Commission)
    • See, e.g., Caroline E. Mayer, Rules Would Limit Lawsuits; U.S. Agencies Seek to Preempt States, Wash. Post, Feb. 16, 2006 at D1 (preemption by Consumer Product Safety Commission);
    • (2006) Wash. Post
    • Mayer, C.E.1
  • 158
    • 33947514429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FDA Strategy Would Preempt Tort Suits
    • Mar. 1, (preemption by Food & Drug Administration)
    • Gary Young, FDA Strategy Would Preempt Tort Suits, Nat'l L.J., Mar. 1, 2004, at 1 (preemption by Food & Drug Administration).
    • (2004) Nat'l L.J. , pp. 1
    • Young, G.1
  • 159
    • 77958410286 scopus 로고
    • Toward a Theory of Statutory Evolution: The Federalization of Environmental Law
    • See 313
    • See E. Donald Elliott et al., Toward a Theory of Statutory Evolution: The Federalization of Environmental Law, 1 J.L. Econ. & Org. 313, 330-33 (1985).
    • (1985) J.L. Econ. & Org. , vol.1 , pp. 330-333
    • Elliott, E.D.1
  • 160
    • 0003263650 scopus 로고
    • For other examples of this phenomenon, see (Michael S. Greve & Fred L. Smith, Jr., eds.)
    • For other examples of this phenomenon, see Environmental Politics: Public Costs, Private Rewards (Michael S. Greve & Fred L. Smith, Jr., eds., 1992);
    • (1992) Environmental Politics: Public Costs, Private Rewards
  • 162
    • 33947543794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Levels of stringency are not the only way in which federal and state standards could differ. For example, it would be possible for the federal government to impose a technology standard on a given facility while the state government could impose an explicit emission limit, or vice-versa.
  • 163
    • 17644384739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. (preempting state enforcement of emission standards less stringent than existing federal standards)
    • See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 7416 (2000) (preempting state enforcement of emission standards less stringent than existing federal standards).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7416
  • 164
    • 22544458437 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism, Preemption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
    • 281, ("[E]nvironmental regulation-in which both the states and the federal government play an active role-frequently raises preemption questions.")
    • Ann E. Carlson, Federalism, Preemption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 37 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 281, 306 (2003) ("[E]nvironmental regulation-in which both the states and the federal government play an active role-frequently raises preemption questions.").
    • (2003) U.C. Davis L. Rev. , vol.37 , pp. 306
    • Carlson, A.E.1
  • 165
    • 33947538990 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 7543(a)
    • 42 U.S.C. § 7543(a) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 166
    • 33947532476 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There are exceptions to this rule. EPA may waive preemption of emission standards adopted by California, subject to certain conditions. § 7543(b)
    • There are exceptions to this rule. EPA may waive preemption of emission standards adopted by California, subject to certain conditions. 42 U.S.C. § 7543(b) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 167
    • 33947528546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Where EPA has approved a waiver for California, other states may adopt the California rule. In all cases, however, the other 49 states may not adopt a "third" standard. The CAA contains similar provisions governing standards for gasoline. § 7545(c)(4)
    • Where EPA has approved a waiver for California, other states may adopt the California rule. In all cases, however, the other 49 states may not adopt a "third" standard. The CAA contains similar provisions governing standards for gasoline. 42 U.S.C. § 7545(c)(4) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 168
    • 33947542661 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 32919(a) Unlike with emission standards, there is no conditional exemption for California
    • 49 U.S.C. § 32919(a) (2000). Unlike with emission standards, there is no conditional exemption for California.
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.49
  • 169
    • 33947539948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 136v(b)
    • 7 U.S.C. § 136v(b) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.7
  • 170
    • 33947536818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There has been a significant amount of litigation about the scope of preemption under this provision, in part because FIFRA also contains a savings clause at § 136v(a)
    • There has been a significant amount of litigation about the scope of preemption under this provision, in part because FIFRA also contains a savings clause at 7 U.S.C. § 136v(a) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.7
  • 171
    • 33947495671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pesticides, Children's Health Policy, and Common Law Tort Claims
    • See generally Alexandra B. Klass, Pesticides, Children's Health Policy, and Common Law Tort Claims, 7 Minn. J. L. Sci. & Tech. 89 (2005).
    • (2005) Minn. J. L. Sci. & Tech. , vol.7 , pp. 89
    • Klass, A.B.1
  • 172
    • 33947517029 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 15 U.S.C. § 2617 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.15 , pp. 2617
  • 173
    • 33947508616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (finding preemption under the Port and Waterways Safety Act of 1972)
    • 529 U.S. 89 (2000) (finding preemption under the Port and Waterways Safety Act of 1972).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.529 , pp. 89
  • 174
    • 33947547384 scopus 로고
    • City of Milwaukee v. Illinois
    • See City of Milwaukee v. Illinois, 451 U.S. 304 (1981).
    • (1981) U.S. , vol.451 , pp. 304
  • 175
    • 33947522455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Clean Water Act and the Demise of the Federal Common Law of Interstate Nuisance
    • See also Robert Percival, The Clean Water Act and the Demise of the Federal Common Law of Interstate Nuisance, 55 Ala. L. Rev. 717 (2004).
    • (2004) Ala. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 717
    • Percival, R.1
  • 176
    • 18344368345 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Printz v. United States
    • See Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898 (1997).
    • (1997) U.S. , vol.521 , pp. 898
  • 177
    • 33044493019 scopus 로고
    • 144
    • 505 U.S. 144, 167 (1992).
    • (1992) U.S. , vol.505 , pp. 167
  • 178
    • 33947518722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., (authorizing financial support for state water pollution control programs that conform with federal requirements)
    • See, e.g., 33 U.S.C. § 1256 (2000) (authorizing financial support for state water pollution control programs that conform with federal requirements);
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.33 , pp. 1256
  • 179
    • 27144482962 scopus 로고
    • Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models
    • (noting other examples)
    • see also Percival, supra note 1, at 1173 (noting other examples).
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1173
    • Percival, R.V.1
  • 180
    • 33947515304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., (detailing sanctions imposed on states for failing to meet federal air quality standards)
    • See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 7509 (2000) (detailing sanctions imposed on states for failing to meet federal air quality standards).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7509
  • 181
    • 0347274358 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • ("[W]here Congress has the authority to regulate private activity under the Commerce Clause, we have recognized Congress' power to offer States the choice of regulating that activity according to federal standards or having state law pre-empted by federal regulation....This arrangement... has been termed...'a program of cooperative federalism.'..." (internal citations omitted)). Statutes that employ the cooperative federalism model include the Clean Water Act, Occupational Safety and Health Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
    • New York, 505 U.S. at 167-68 (1992) ("[W]here Congress has the authority to regulate private activity under the Commerce Clause, we have recognized Congress' power to offer States the choice of regulating that activity according to federal standards or having state law pre-empted by federal regulation.... This arrangement ... has been termed ... 'a program of cooperative federalism.' ..." (internal citations omitted)). Statutes that employ the cooperative federalism model include the Clean Water Act, Occupational Safety and Health Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act.
    • (1992) U.S. , vol.505 , pp. 167-168
  • 182
    • 0347274358 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Id.
    • (1992) U.S. , vol.505 , pp. 167-168
  • 183
    • 0347528266 scopus 로고
    • The Practice of Federalism Under the Clean Air Act
    • See Dwyer, supra note 38, at 1184.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1184
    • Dwyer, J.1
  • 185
    • 33947492346 scopus 로고
    • Our Federalism, Our Hazardous Waste, and Our Good Fortune
    • 1516, ("The essence of cooperative federalism is that states take primary responsibility for implementing federal standards, while retaining the freedom to apply their own, more stringent standards."). A notable exception is the case of product standards. As a general matter, federal product standards, such as vehicle emission standards, tend to preempt more stringent state standards
    • Adam Babich, Our Federalism, Our Hazardous Waste, and Our Good Fortune, 54 Md. L. Rev. 1516, 1534 (1995) ("The essence of cooperative federalism is that states take primary responsibility for implementing federal standards, while retaining the freedom to apply their own, more stringent standards."). A notable exception is the case of product standards. As a general matter, federal product standards, such as vehicle emission standards, tend to preempt more stringent state standards.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1534
    • Babich, A.1
  • 186
    • 33947505497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., § 7543(a) (preemption of state automobile emission standards)
    • See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 7543(a) (2000) (preemption of state automobile emission standards);
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 187
    • 33947531625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 7545(c)(4)(A) (preemption of state fuel standards)
    • 42 U.S.C. § 7545(c)(4)(A) (2000) (preemption of state fuel standards).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 188
    • 33947539316 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §§ 7401-7661f
    • 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401-7661f (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42
  • 189
    • 33745731708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 42 U.S.C. § 7410 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7410
  • 190
    • 33947515304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The imposition of such sanctions is not solely, or even primarily, within EPA's discretion, as individual citizens and activist groups may force EPA's hands through citizen suits seeking to enforce the express requirements of the CAA and regulations promulgated pursuant to it
    • 42 U.S.C. § 7509 (2000). The imposition of such sanctions is not solely, or even primarily, within EPA's discretion, as individual citizens and activist groups may force EPA's hands through citizen suits seeking to enforce the express requirements of the CAA and regulations promulgated pursuant to it.
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7509
  • 191
    • 33947537623 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 42 U.S.C. § 7604 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7604
  • 192
    • 33947547681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 42 U.S.C. § 7506 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.42 , pp. 7506
  • 193
    • 0001654516 scopus 로고
    • Pyramids of Sacrife?: Problems of Federalism in Mandating state Implementation of National Environmental Policy
    • ("State and local officials refused to enforce many of the [EPA]'s unpopular controls.")
    • See Stewart, supra note 46, at 1204 ("State and local officials
    • (1977) Yale L.J , vol.86 , pp. 1204
    • Stewart, R.B.1
  • 194
    • 33947529682 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also supra note 57, and cases cited therein
    • see also supra note 57, and cases cited therein.
  • 195
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environmental Regulation
    • This author has argued elsewhere that, while the CAA's inducement scheme is effective, it also may be unconstitutional insofar as it exceeds the scope of permissible uses of conditional spending. See
    • This author has argued elsewhere that, while the CAA's inducement scheme is effective, it also may be unconstitutional insofar as it exceeds the scope of permissible uses of conditional spending. See Adler, Judicial Federalism, supra note 10, at 447-52.
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 447-452
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 196
    • 17544369051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Choosing How to Regulate
    • It should be noted that the hypotheses presented in this section are not dependent upon any particular theory about what sorts of interests ultimately drive the policy-making process. The hypotheses are equally compatible with public interest and public choice theories of policy formation. See 179, (summarizing various theories of regulation)
    • It should be noted that the hypotheses presented in this section are not dependent upon any particular theory about what sorts of interests ultimately drive the policy-making process. The hypotheses are equally compatible with public interest and public choice theories of policy formation. See Andrew P. Morriss, Bruce Yandle & Andrew Dorchak, Choosing How to Regulate, 29 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 179, 214-23 (2005) (summarizing various theories of regulation);
    • (2005) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.29 , pp. 214-223
    • Morriss, A.P.1    Yandle, B.2    Dorchak, A.3
  • 197
    • 70449098788 scopus 로고
    • Poliltics and Procedure in Environmental Law
    • (same)
    • Farber, supra note 15, at 62-70 (same).
    • (1992) J.L. Econ. & Org. , vol.8 , pp. 62-70
    • Farber, D.A.1
  • 198
    • 0742271520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps
    • 1, ("[I]ncreased activity and publicity about an issue can over time change stakeholder perceptions and possibly preferences")
    • William W. Buzbee, Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps, 89 Iowa L. Rev. 1, 55 (2003) ("[I]ncreased activity and publicity about an issue can over time change stakeholder perceptions and possibly preferences.").
    • (2003) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.89 , pp. 55
    • Buzbee, W.W.1
  • 199
    • 0004758198 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (noting that "indoor air quality, particularly in the home, is a far better indicator of the impact of air pollution on public health" than is outdoor air quality)
    • See Goklany, supra note 22, at 43 (noting that "indoor air quality, particularly in the home, is a far better indicator of the impact of air pollution on public health" than is outdoor air quality).
    • (1999) Clearing the Air: The Real Story of the War on Air Pollution , pp. 43
    • Goklany, I.M.1
  • 200
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • For a discussion of where federal intervention is, and is not, justified to address environmental concerns, see [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch]
    • For a discussion of where federal intervention is, and is not, justified to address environmental concerns, see Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supra note 10, at 139-57.
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 139-157
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 201
    • 33947519966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Air - Indoor Air Quality
    • See EPA, (last visited Oct. 18) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review)
    • See EPA, Air - Indoor Air Quality, http://www.epa.gov/iaq (last visited Oct. 18, 2006) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review).
    • (2006)
  • 202
    • 33947498357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Indoor Air Quality - Smokefree Homes Program
    • For example, EPA distributes various publications, posters and other materials on the risks posed by secondhand smoke. See EPA, (last visited Oct. 18) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review)
    • For example, EPA distributes various publications, posters and other materials on the risks posed by secondhand smoke. See EPA, Indoor Air Quality - Smokefree Homes Program, http://www.epa.gov/smokefree/ publications.html (last visited Oct. 18, 2006) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review).
    • (2006)
  • 203
    • 0003659940 scopus 로고
    • See EPA, available at. While quite influential, this study has been subject to criticism and challenged in court
    • See EPA, Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders (1992), available at http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/ recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835. While quite influential, this study has been subject to criticism and challenged in court.
    • (1992) Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders
  • 204
    • 33947508020 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Flue-Cured Tobacco Coop. Stabilization Corp. v. U.S. EPA
    • See (M.D.N.C.), vacated on other grounds, 313 F.3d 852 (4th Cir. 2002)
    • See Flue-Cured Tobacco Coop. Stabilization Corp. v. U.S. EPA, 4 F. Supp. 2d 435, (M.D.N.C. 1998), vacated on other grounds, 313 F.3d 852 (4th Cir. 2002).
    • (1998) F. Supp. 2d , vol.4 , pp. 435
  • 205
    • 33947492348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Yes, Smoking's Still Dangerous
    • See, e.g., Editorial, (Madison, Wis.) July 22, available at 1998 WLNR 2459193 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("That EPA report turned secondhand smoke into a national issue, and led to state and local bans on smoking in public buildings, airplanes, restaurants and other spaces")
    • See, e.g., Editorial, Yes, Smoking's Still Dangerous, Capital Times, (Madison, Wis.) July 22, 1998, at 8A, available at 1998 WLNR 2459193 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("That EPA report turned secondhand smoke into a national issue, and led to state and local bans on smoking in public buildings, airplanes, restaurants and other spaces.");
    • (1998) Capital Times
  • 206
    • 33947540801 scopus 로고
    • Big Ban to Come: Smoking Prohibition in State Vehicles, Buildings to Go into Effect June 13, Five Months After Order
    • Apr. 30, available at 1993 WLNR 1234938 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) (Ohio Governor "Voinovich signed the order Jan. 8 after the U.S. EPA issued a report that called secondhand smoke a health hazard")
    • Jim Quinn, Big Ban to Come: Smoking Prohibition in State Vehicles, Buildings to Go into Effect June 13, Five Months After Order, Akron Beacon J., Apr. 30, 1993, at C1, available at 1993 WLNR 1234938 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) (Ohio Governor "Voinovich signed the order Jan. 8 after the U.S. EPA issued a report that called secondhand smoke a health hazard");
    • (1993) Akron Beacon J.
    • Quinn, J.1
  • 207
    • 33947530263 scopus 로고
    • Study Prompts More Smoking Restrictions
    • Mar. 1, available at 1993 WLNR 737630 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("A government report linking secondhand cigarette smoke to lung cancer and children's diseases has triggered a surge in smoking restrictions across America - from a delicatessen in Denver to state offices in tobacco-growing Kentucky")
    • Study Prompts More Smoking Restrictions, Bradenton Herald, Mar. 1, 1993, at A4, available at 1993 WLNR 737630 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("A government report linking secondhand cigarette smoke to lung cancer and children's diseases has triggered a surge in smoking restrictions across America - from a delicatessen in Denver to state offices in tobacco-growing Kentucky.").
    • (1993) Bradenton Herald
  • 209
    • 33947500960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sweeping Prohibition on Smoking Is Adopted
    • See Nov. 8, available at 2006 WLNR 19427960 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) (citing Surgeon General's report as factor contributing to passage of statewide indoor smoking ban)
    • See Harlan Spector, Sweeping Prohibition on Smoking Is Adopted, Cleve. Plain Dealer, Nov. 8, 2006, at S7, available at 2006 WLNR 19427960 (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) (citing Surgeon General's report as factor contributing to passage of statewide indoor smoking ban).
    • (2006) Cleve. Plain Dealer
    • Spector, H.1
  • 211
    • 0003635726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Nat'l Academy of Sciences Comm. on the Science of Climate Change, (specifically requested by the Bush Administration)
    • See also Nat'l Academy of Sciences Comm. on the Science of Climate Change, Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions (2001) (specifically requested by the Bush Administration);
    • (2001) Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions
  • 212
    • 33947539949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Global Warming
    • EPA, (last visited Oct. 18) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review)
    • EPA, Global Warming, http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/ content/index.html (last visited Oct. 18, 2006) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review);
    • (2006)
  • 213
    • 33845693364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate Change
    • U.S. Dep't of Energy, (last visited Oct. 18) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review)
    • U.S. Dep't of Energy, Climate Change, http://www.energy.gov/environment/ climatechange.htm (last visited Oct. 18, 2006) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review).
    • (2006)
  • 214
    • 33645953153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Massachusetts v. EPA
    • Congress considered, and rejected, a proposal to control greenhouse gas emissions during the debate over the legislation that would eventually become the 1990 CAA Amendments. During the Clinton Administration, several environmental organizations petitioned EPA, claiming the agency was nonetheless required to regulate greenhouse gases under the CAA. EPA, meanwhile, declared it had the authority to adopt such regulations, yet it did not take any steps to do so. Subsequently, under the Bush Administration, EPA revised its legal opinion, concluding that the CAA did not confer regulatory jurisdiction over greenhouse gas emissions. The Bush Administration has opposed legislative proposals to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. At the time of this writing, litigation efforts to force EPA to regulate greenhouse gases have been unsuccessful, but are ongoing. See (D.C. Cit.), cert. granted, 126 S. Ct. 2960 (2006)
    • Congress considered, and rejected, a proposal to control greenhouse gas emissions during the debate over the legislation that would eventually become the 1990 CAA Amendments. During the Clinton Administration, several environmental organizations petitioned EPA, claiming the agency was nonetheless required to regulate greenhouse gases under the CAA. EPA, meanwhile, declared it had the authority to adopt such regulations, yet it did not take any steps to do so. Subsequently, under the Bush Administration, EPA revised its legal opinion, concluding that the CAA did not confer regulatory jurisdiction over greenhouse gas emissions. The Bush Administration has opposed legislative proposals to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. At the time of this writing, litigation efforts to force EPA to regulate greenhouse gases have been unsuccessful, but are ongoing. See Massachusetts v. EPA, 413 F.3d 50 (D.C. Cit. 2005),
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.413 , pp. 50
  • 215
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (noting several states adopted carbon dioxide standards, while others oppose ratification of the Kyoto Protocol)
    • cert. granted, 126 S. Ct. 2960 (2006). See Teske, supra note 9, at 17 (noting several states adopted carbon dioxide standards, while others oppose ratification of the Kyoto Protocol);
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 17
    • Teske, P.1
  • 216
    • 22144464205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also ("[O]ver the past decade approximately one-third of the American states have enacted multiple policies that show considerable promise of reducing greenhouse gases")
    • see also Barry G. Rabe, Statehouse and Greenhouse: The Emerging Politics of American Climate Change Policy xi-xii (2004) ("[O]ver the past decade approximately one-third of the American states have enacted multiple policies that show considerable promise of reducing greenhouse gases.");
    • (2004) Statehouse and Greenhouse: The Emerging Politics of American Climate Change Policy Xi-xii
    • Rabe, B.G.1
  • 217
    • 22544458437 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism, Preemption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
    • (noting many states "have quietly begun to fill the void in leadership that some believe exists at the national level")
    • Carlson, supra note 78, at 282 (noting many states "have quietly begun to fill the void in leadership that some believe exists at the national level").
    • (2003) U.C. Davis L. Rev. , vol.37 , pp. 282
    • Carlson, A.E.1
  • 218
    • 85032852708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cities, States Aren't Waiting for U.S. Action on Climate
    • See, e.g., Aug. 11, (noting state and local governments are adopting climate change policies due to "deadlock" over the issue at the federal level)
    • See, e.g., Juliet Eilperin, Cities, States Aren't Waiting for U.S. Action on Climate, Wash. Post, Aug. 11, 2006, at A1 (noting state and local governments are adopting climate change policies due to "deadlock" over the issue at the federal level);
    • (2006) Wash. Post
    • Eilperin, J.1
  • 219
    • 33947542918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Laboratories of Progress
    • Oct
    • Jim Marzilli, Laboratories of Progress, Am. Prospect, Oct. 2005, at A13.
    • (2005) Am. Prospect
    • Marzilli, J.1
  • 220
    • 33947513496 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assemb. B. 1493, 2001-2002 Sess. (Ca.) codified at Cal. Health & Safety Code § 43018.5(a) (2003)
    • Assemb. B. 1493, 2001-2002 Sess. (Ca. 2002), codified at Cal. Health & Safety Code § 43018.5(a) (2003).
    • (2002)
  • 221
    • 85032852708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cities, States Aren't Waiting for U.S. Action on Climate
    • See, e.g., Aug. 11, ("Some local officials said they are pushing ahead with plans because the Bush administration, which has promoted cleaner technology but opposes mandatory curbs on greenhouse gas emissions, has failed to adequately address the problem."). Despite its relative inaction on the climate front, EPA takes credit for facilitating some state programs
    • See, e.g., Eilperin, supra note 111 ("Some local officials said they are pushing ahead with plans because the Bush administration, which has promoted cleaner technology but opposes mandatory curbs on greenhouse gas emissions, has failed to adequately address the problem."). Despite its relative inaction on the climate front, EPA takes credit for facilitating some state programs.
    • (2006) Wash. Post
    • Eilperin, J.1
  • 222
    • 33947515305 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Global Warming - Actions: State
    • See EPA, (last visited Nov. 8) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("Many of these actions were initiated and/or have received assistance from the US EPA's State and Local Climate Change Program, a capacity-building program that provides technical and financial assistance to state (and local) officials and organizations that support state functions")
    • See EPA, Global Warming - Actions: State, http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/ globalwarming.nsf/content/ActionsState.html (last visited Nov. 8, 2006) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review) ("Many of these actions were initiated and/or have received assistance from the US EPA's State and Local Climate Change Program, a capacity-building program that provides technical and financial assistance to state (and local) officials and organizations that support state functions.").
    • (2006)
  • 223
    • 18944389963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nat'l Research Council, ("[A] federal role is appropriate in those research areas where the benefits of such research are widely dispersed and do not accrue only to those who fund the research.")
    • Nat'l Research Council, Confronting the Nations's Water Problems: The Role of Research 68 (2004) ("[A] federal role is appropriate in those research areas where the benefits of such research are widely dispersed and do not accrue only to those who fund the research.").
    • (2004) Confronting the Nations's Water Problems: The Role of Research , vol.68
  • 224
    • 33947536819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 5, 570 ("Absent centralized functions, independent state regulators will either duplicate each other's analytic work or engage in time-consuming and complex negotiations to establish an efficient division of technical labor."). Of course it is possible that competition could improve scientific research insofar as different entities pursue different research methodologies to address emerging environmental problems
    • See Esty, supra note 5, at 614-15 ("Absent centralized functions, independent state regulators will either duplicate each other's analytic work or engage in time-consuming and complex negotiations to establish an efficient division of technical labor."). Of course it is possible that competition could improve scientific research insofar as different entities pursue different research methodologies to address emerging environmental problems.
    • Esty, D.C.1
  • 225
    • 33947514738 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Where federal regulation is preemptive, it may also provide a "ceiling" as well. See supra
    • Where federal regulation is preemptive, it may also provide a "ceiling" as well. See supra Part II.A.
    • , Issue.PART II.A
  • 226
    • 39049112143 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Competition as a Source Driving Climate Change Mitigation
    • "See 1, (noting "the notion of federal policy as a 'floor' protecting certain 'fundamental rights' still has vitality" in environmental policy debates)
    • "See Barry G. Rabe, Mikael Roman & Arthur N. Dobelis, State Competition as a Source Driving Climate Change Mitigation, 14 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. 1, 6-7 (2005) (noting "the notion of federal policy as a 'floor' protecting certain 'fundamental rights' still has vitality" in environmental policy debates).
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 6-7
    • Rabe, B.G.1    Roman, M.2    Dobelis, A.N.3
  • 227
    • 57849130652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legislative Intent: The Use of Positive Political Theory in Statutory Interpretation
    • See 3, (noting that "an action is informative if it is taken by an informed person who pays a fee, expends effort, or foregoes some valuable alternative activity in order to take the action")
    • See McNollgast (Mathew D. McCubbins, Roger G. Noll & Barry R. Weingast), Legislative Intent: The Use of Positive Political Theory in Statutory Interpretation, 57 Law & Contemp. Probs. 3, 25 (1994) (noting that "an action is informative if it is taken by an informed person who pays a fee, expends effort, or foregoes some valuable alternative activity in order to take the action").
    • (1994) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.57 , pp. 25
    • McNollgast1    McCubbins, M.D.2    Noll, R.G.3    Weingast, B.R.4
  • 229
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • See 1373
    • See Jerome M. Organ, Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems, 54 Md. L. Rev. 1373, 1376-86 (1995);
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1376-1386
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 230
    • 33947495971 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism and the Inspection and Maintenance Program Under the Clean Air Act
    • see also 1461, (noting "movement among state legislatures to prohibit more stringent state standards")
    • see also Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., Federalism and the Inspection and Maintenance Program Under the Clean Air Act, 27 Pac. L.J. 1461, 1465 (1996) (noting "movement among state legislatures to prohibit more stringent state standards").
    • (1996) Pac. L.J. , vol.27 , pp. 1465
    • Reitze Jr., A.W.1
  • 231
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • Organ, supra note 119, at 1376 n.13.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , Issue.13 , pp. 1376
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 232
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • Id. at 1377.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1377
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 233
    • 33947492934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See N.M. Stat. § 74-2-5 (2003);
    • (2003) N.M. Stat.
  • 235
    • 33645496485 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Va. Code Ann. § 62.1-44.15:1 (2004).
    • (2004) Va. Code Ann.
  • 236
    • 17144401272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., § 13A.120
    • See, e.g., Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13A.120 (2003).
    • (2003) Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann.
  • 237
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • See Organ, supra note 119, at 1390.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1390
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 238
    • 33947517219 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 38-39 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 38-39 and accompanying text.
  • 239
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • See (noting some states bar "an agency from promulgating standards or regulations more stringent than federal law unless unique circumstances justify more stringent regulations")
    • See Organ, supra note 119, at 1380 (noting some states bar "an agency from promulgating standards or regulations more stringent than federal law unless unique circumstances justify more stringent regulations").
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1380
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 240
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • See [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch] (noting inadequate understanding of data concerning environmental problems covered by various federal programs)
    • See Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supra note 10, at 163-69 (noting inadequate understanding of data concerning environmental problems covered by various federal programs).
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 163-169
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 241
    • 0041055163 scopus 로고
    • Limitations on State Agency Authority to Adopt Environmental Standards More Stringent than Federal Standards: Policy Considerations and Interpretive Problems
    • See Organ, supra note 119, at 1387.
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1387
    • Organ, J.M.1
  • 242
    • 33947502747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism
    • See [hereinafter Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch] (noting potential benefits from economies of scale generated by regulatory uniformity)
    • See Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch, supra note 10, at 145-49 (noting potential benefits from economies of scale generated by regulatory uniformity).
    • (2005) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. , vol.14 , pp. 145-149
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 243
    • 33947515603 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part I.A
    • See supra Part I.A.
  • 244
    • 33947542591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part I.A
    • See id.
  • 245
    • 33947509851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Environmental protections can be evaluated in both quantitative and qualitative terms. This initial discussion focuses exclusively on the quantity of environmental protection. The effects of qualitative differences in environmental protection are discussed below. See infra Part IV.
  • 246
    • 33947512319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • B, the presence of a federal regulatory floor will result in a lower level of environmental protection
  • 247
    • 0346980359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Norms, Empiricism, and Canons in Statutory Interpretation
    • William Eskridge defines a "vetogate" as "a place within a process where a statutory proposal can be vetoed or effectively killed." 671
    • William Eskridge defines a "vetogate" as "a place within a process where a statutory proposal can be vetoed or effectively killed." William N. Eskridge, Jr., Norms, Empiricism, and Canons in Statutory Interpretation, 66 U. Chi. L. Rev. 671, 677 n. 13 (1999).
    • (1999) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.66 , Issue.13 , pp. 677
    • Eskridge Jr., W.N.1
  • 248
    • 57849130652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legislative Intent: The Use of Positive Political Theory in Statutory Interpretation
    • See (observing that because "attempts to pass new legislation typically must navigate through numerous veto gates ... it is difficult and time-consuming to change most prior legislative bargains"). While some states have different legislative structures, and therefore may have a lesser (or greater) number of "vetogates," the general observation that determined minority interests can block the adoption of policies that enjoy majority support still holds
    • See McNollgast, supra note 118, at 11 (observing that because "attempts to pass new legislation typically must navigate through numerous veto gates ... it is difficult and time-consuming to change most prior legislative bargains"). While some states have different legislative structures, and therefore may have a lesser (or greater) number of "vetogates," the general observation that determined minority interests can block the adoption of policies that enjoy majority support still holds.
    • (1994) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.57 , pp. 11
    • McNollgast1    McCubbins, M.D.2    Noll, R.G.3    Weingast, B.R.4
  • 249
    • 57849130652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legislative Intent: The Use of Positive Political Theory in Statutory Interpretation
    • (noting "the basic structure of government establishes several checks on the ability of legislative majorities to enact their will")
    • Id. at 16 (noting "the basic structure of government establishes several checks on the ability of legislative majorities to enact their will").
    • (2005) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.57 , pp. 16
    • McNollgast1    McCubbins, M.D.2    Noll, R.G.3    Weingast, B.R.4
  • 250
    • 5844349570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (noting the "strong structural bias within our existing lawmaking institutions in favor of government's acting more slowly and incrementally"). While Lazarus' comments are directed at the national government, this same structural bias can be seen in state governments as well
    • Lazarus, supra note 71, at 32 (noting the "strong structural bias within our existing lawmaking institutions in favor of government's acting more slowly and incrementally"). While Lazarus' comments are directed at the national government, this same structural bias can be seen in state governments as well.
    • (2004) The Making of Environmental Law , pp. 32
    • Lazarus, R.J.1
  • 251
    • 0347776234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Choice of Regulatory Instruments in Environmental Policy
    • The utility maximized by the policy-maker need not be the policy-maker's "self-interest" but could also be the "public interest" that the policy-maker seeks to serve. See 313, (observing that a legislator may derive utility from many different interests). Alternate assumptions do not alter the analysis. Indeed, as Jonathan Macey observes, [O]ver a wide range of issues, the outcomes predicted by the public-interest model will be identical to those predicted by the interest-group model when the political-support-maximizing solution varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction
    • The utility maximized by the policy-maker need not be the policy-maker's "self-interest" but could also be the "public interest" that the policy-maker seeks to serve. See Nathaniel O. Keohane, Richard L. Revesz & Robert N. Stavins, The Choice of Regulatory Instruments in Environmental Policy, 22 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 313, 333 (1998) (observing that a legislator may derive utility from many different interests). Alternate assumptions do not alter the analysis. Indeed, as Jonathan Macey observes, [O]ver a wide range of issues, the outcomes predicted by the public-interest model will be identical to those predicted by the interest-group model when the political-support-maximizing solution varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
    • (1998) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.22 , pp. 333
    • Keohane, N.O.1    Revesz, R.L.2    Stavins, R.N.3
  • 252
    • 0040146716 scopus 로고
    • Federal Deference to Local Regulators and the Economic Theory of Regulation: Toward a Public-Choice Explanation of Federalism
    • 265
    • Jonathan R. Macey, Federal Deference to Local Regulators and the Economic Theory of Regulation: Toward a Public-Choice Explanation of Federalism, 76 Va. L. Rev. 265, 284 (1990);
    • (1990) Va. L. Rev. , vol.76 , pp. 284
    • Macey, J.R.1
  • 254
    • 0742271520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps
    • See ("[I]ncreased activity and publicity about an issue can over time change stakeholder perceptions and possibly preferences."). (noting policy-makers may view "regulatory opportunity as a commons resource much as fishers would view a shared ocean," resulting in regulatory inattention)
    • See Buzbee, supra note 99, at 27-28 (noting policy-makers may view "regulatory opportunity as a commons resource much as fishers would view a shared ocean," resulting in regulatory inattention).
    • (2003) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.89 , pp. 27-28
    • Buzbee, W.W.1
  • 255
    • 0040146716 scopus 로고
    • Federal Deferences to Local Regulators and the Economic Theory of Regulation: Toward a Public-Choice Explanation of Federalism
    • See (noting the division of authority between federal and state governments can enable Congress to "shift the blame for controversial enactments even more effectively ... than by deferring to administrative agencies")
    • See Macey, supra note 139, at 275 (noting the division of authority between federal and state governments can enable Congress to "shift the blame for controversial enactments even more effectively ... than by deferring to administrative agencies");
    • (1990) Va. L. Rev. , vol.76 , pp. 275
    • Macey, J.R.1
  • 256
    • 0742271520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps
    • See ("[I]ncreased activity and publicity about an issue can over time change stakeholder perceptions and possibly preferences."). ("Where numerous regulators could be blamed for the ill, or sought out for relief, demanders of regulation encounter substantial informational and strategic hurdles confounding attribution decisions.")
    • Buzbee, supra note 99, at 31 ("Where numerous regulators could be blamed for the ill, or sought out for relief, demanders of regulation encounter substantial informational and strategic hurdles confounding attribution decisions.").
    • (2003) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.89 , pp. 31
    • Buzbee, W.W.1
  • 257
    • 31544455328 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Against Cooperative Federalism
    • See Michael S. Greve, Against Cooperative Federalism, 70 Miss. L.J. 557 (2000-01);
    • (2000) Miss. L.J. , vol.70 , pp. 557
    • Greve, M.S.1
  • 258
    • 0040176151 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Political Economy of Cooperative Federalism: Why State Autonomy Makes Sense and "Dual Sovereignty" Doesn't
    • see also 813, (noting "accountability" argument for anti-commandeering rule, insofar as it is accepted, applies with equal force to "cooperative federalism" arrangements)
    • see also Roderick M. Hills, Jr., The Political Economy of Cooperative Federalism: Why State Autonomy Makes Sense and "Dual Sovereignty" Doesn't, 96 Mich. L. Rev. 813, 828 (1997-98) (noting "accountability" argument for anti-commandeering rule, insofar as it is accepted, applies with equal force to "cooperative federalism" arrangements).
    • (1997) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.96 , pp. 828
    • Hills Jr., R.M.1
  • 259
    • 0347776234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Choice of Regulatory Instruments in Environmental Policy
    • See (observing that a legislator may derive utility from many different interests) (noting that the design of environmental policy requires determining both the desired level of environmental protection and what policy instruments should be used to achieve the specific environmental goal)
    • See Keohane, Revesz & Stavins, supra note 139, at 313 (noting that the design of environmental policy requires determining both the desired level of environmental protection and what policy instruments should be used to achieve the specific environmental goal).
    • (1998) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.22 , pp. 313
    • Keohane, O.1    Revesz, R.L.2    Stavins, R.N.3
  • 260
    • 26644460726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ("[S]tate regulation is far less well understood than federal regulation, though it is no less important."). (summarizing potential advantages of state regulation)
    • See Teske, supra note 9, at 23 (summarizing potential advantages of state regulation).
    • (2004) Regulation in the States , pp. 23
    • Teske, P.1
  • 261
    • 33947527192 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 38-39 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 38-39 and accompanying text.
  • 262
    • 33947518419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Role os State Law in an Era of Federal Preemption: Lessons from Environmental Regulation
    • See ("The sheer size of the nation and the dizzying variety of social and environmental conditions and political preferences leave little hope that the central government could efficiently or accurately custom tailor environmental laws for different regions")
    • See Dwyer, supra note 4, at 222 ("The sheer size of the nation and the dizzying variety of social and environmental conditions and political preferences leave little hope that the central government could efficiently or accurately custom tailor environmental laws for different regions.").
    • (1997) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.60 , pp. 222
    • Dwyer, J.P.1
  • 263
    • 33947500062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Tragedy of Centralization: The Political Economics of Natural Resource Federalism
    • See also ("Regulatory centralization may be ... just as tragic for natural resources as the regime of local control that it is designed to replace")
    • See also Johnston, supra note 18, at 487 ("Regulatory centralization may be ... just as tragic for natural resources as the regime of local control that it is designed to replace.").
    • (2003) U. Colo. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 487
    • Johnston, J.S.1
  • 265
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    • Federalism and Environmental Regulation: A Public Choice Analysis
    • See also ("[T]he states, not the federal government, produced the most innovation in pollution control legislation in the 1990s")
    • See also Revesz, supra note 25, at 636 ("[T]he states, not the federal government, produced the most innovation in pollution control legislation in the 1990s.").
    • (2001) Harv. L. Rev , vol.115 , pp. 636
    • Revesz, R.L.1
  • 266
    • 0035540293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism and Environmental Regulation: A Public Choice Analysis
    • See (noting state leadership in waste site clean up and brownfield redevelopment)
    • See Revesz, supra note 25, at 603 (noting state leadership in waste site clean up and brownfield redevelopment);
    • (2001) Harv. L. Rev , vol.115 , pp. 603
    • Revesz, R.L.1
  • 267
    • 85041075943 scopus 로고
    • Cleaning Up Superfund: The Case for State Environmental Leadership
    • available at
    • J. Winston Porter, Cleaning Up Superfund: The Case for State Environmental Leadership, Reason Foundation Policy Study No. 195 (1995), available at http://www.reason.org/ps195.pdf.
    • (1995) Reason Foundation Policy Study No. 195
    • Porter, J.W.1
  • 268
    • 18844363944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Federalism and the Future of Federal Environmental Regulation
    • See [hereinafter Adler, Judicial Federalism]
    • See Adler, Judicial Federalism, supra note 10, at 462-63.
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 462-463
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 269
    • 33947523067 scopus 로고
    • Should All Wetlands Be Subject to the Same Regulation?
    • For instance, as of 1992 ten states were using wetland classification systems to evaluate function and value in the regulatory process. 32
    • For instance, as of 1992 ten states were using wetland classification systems to evaluate function and value in the regulatory process. William E. Taylor & Dennis Magee, Should All Wetlands Be Subject to the Same Regulation?, 7 Nat. Resources & Env't 32, 34 (1992).
    • (1992) Nat. Resources & Env't , vol.7 , pp. 34
    • Taylor, W.E.1    Magee, D.2
  • 270
    • 33947523067 scopus 로고
    • Should All Wetlands Be Subject to the Same Regulation?
    • The development of these sorts of programs is important because "[a]bsent regulatory classification, there is a presumption that all wetlands are of equal significance with respect to functional value, and that no distinctions are necessary in the level of regulation or in designating mitigation requirements"
    • The development of these sorts of programs is important because "[a]bsent regulatory classification, there is a presumption that all wetlands are of equal significance with respect to functional value, and that no distinctions are necessary in the level of regulation or in designating mitigation requirements." Id. at 32.
    • (1992) Nat. Resources & Env't , vol.7 , pp. 32
    • Taylor, W.E.1    Magee, D.2
  • 271
    • 0032232364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Irregular Regulation Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act: Is the Congress or the Army Corps of Engineers to Blame?
    • On the other hand, a review of Corps permitting decisions found no evidence such considerations entered into the regulatory process. See 445
    • On the other hand, a review of Corps permitting decisions found no evidence such considerations entered into the regulatory process. See Michael J. Mortimer, Irregular Regulation Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act: Is the Congress or the Army Corps of Engineers to Blame?, 13 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 445, 446 (1998).
    • (1998) J. Envtl. L. & Litig. , vol.13 , pp. 446
    • Mortimer, M.J.1
  • 272
    • 33947501266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The costs and benefits of a given measure need not be measured in monetary terms. Moreover, this claim is not dependent upon being able to quantify the costs and benefits of a given regulatory measure. Whether a given measure increases social welfare is independent of the ability to measure effects on social welfare. In addition, a narrow cost-benefit comparison may ignore distributional effects that are equally relevant in the formulation of sound policies.
  • 273
    • 17644412606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 33 U.S.C. § 1344 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.33 , pp. 1344
  • 274
    • 33947522755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Profiling State Wetland Programs
    • Only two states, Michigan and New Jersey, have delegated authority to administer wetlands regulations in lieu of the federal government. See (Envtl. Law Inst., Wash., D.C.), July-Aug
    • Only two states, Michigan and New Jersey, have delegated authority to administer wetlands regulations in lieu of the federal government. See Roxanne Thomas, Profiling State Wetland Programs, Nat'l Wetlands Newsl. (Envtl. Law Inst., Wash., D.C.), July-Aug. 2006, at 14.
    • (2006) Nat'l Wetlands Newsl. , pp. 14
    • Thomas, R.1
  • 275
    • 16344393384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The primary exception is federal funding for state coastal zone management programs which may include regulations of coastal wetlands. See
    • The primary exception is federal funding for state coastal zone management programs which may include regulations of coastal wetlands. See 16 U.S.C. § 1455 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.16 , pp. 1455
  • 276
    • 33947520924 scopus 로고
    • Massachusetts' Experience in Regulating Wetlands
    • in 255, (Ass'n of State Wetland Managers)
    • Alexandra D. Dawson, Massachusetts' Experience in Regulating Wetlands, in Wetland Protection: Strengthening the Role of the States 255, 255 (Ass'n of State Wetland Managers, 1985).
    • (1985) Wetland Protection: Strengthening the Role of the States , pp. 255
    • Dawson, A.D.1
  • 279
    • 0005826748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wetlands, Waterfowl, and the Menace of Mr. Wilson: Commerce Clause Jurisprudence and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation
    • This history is recounted in [hereinafter Adler, Wetlands]
    • This history is recounted in Adler, Wetlands, supra note 10, at 47-54.
    • (1999) Envtl. L. , vol.29 , pp. 47-54
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 281
    • 33947543492 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 6 12
    • U.S.C. § § 1311(a), 1362(6, 12) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.1311-1362 , pp. 1362
  • 282
    • 33947505816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S.C. § 1362(7) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.1362 , Issue.7
  • 283
    • 33947536254 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 328.3(a)
    • C.F.R. § 328.3(a) (2005).
    • (2005) C.F.R. , vol.33
  • 284
    • 33947517498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 1344(a), (c)
    • U.S.C. § 1344(a), (c) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.33
  • 285
    • 24044531708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Solid Waste Agency of N. Cook County (SWANCC) v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng'rs
    • See 159
    • See Solid Waste Agency of N. Cook County (SWANCC) v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng'rs, 531 U.S. 159, 168 (2001)
    • (2001) U.S. , vol.531 , pp. 168
  • 286
    • 33947545588 scopus 로고
    • (citing Corps' 1974 regulation, § 209.120(d)(1))
    • (citing Corps' 1974 regulation, 33 C.F.R. § 209.120(d)(1) (1974)).
    • (1974) C.F.R. , vol.33
  • 287
    • 27144440449 scopus 로고
    • Nat'l Res. Def. Council v. Callaway
    • 685, (D.D.C.)
    • Nat'l Res. Def. Council v. Callaway, 392 F. Supp. 685, 686 (D.D.C. 1975).
    • (1975) F. Supp. , vol.392 , pp. 686
  • 288
    • 33947519355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • SWANCC
    • EPA also disagreed with the Army Corps' initial statutory interpretation. (Stevens, J., dissenting)
    • EPA also disagreed with the Army Corps' initial statutory interpretation. SWANCC, 531 U.S. at 183, n.10 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
    • U.S. , vol.531 , Issue.10 , pp. 183
  • 289
    • 84883304003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Callaway
    • Callaway, 392 F. Supp. at 686.
    • F. Supp. , vol.392 , pp. 686
  • 290
    • 0007325068 scopus 로고
    • See (Table 1). The states in question are Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Wisconsin
    • See Kusler et al., supra note 159, at 5-8 (Table 1). The states in question are Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Wisconsin.
    • (1994) State Wetland Regulations: Status of Programs and Emerging Trends , pp. 5-8
    • Kusler, J.A.1
  • 292
    • 0038086321 scopus 로고
    • Federalism in Wetlands Regulation: A Consideration of Delegation of Clean Water Act Section 404 and Related Programs to the States
    • See 1242
    • See Oliver A. Houck & Michael Rolland, Federalism in Wetlands Regulation: A Consideration of Delegation of Clean Water Act Section 404 and Related Programs to the States, 54 Md. L. Rev. 1242, 1253 (1995).
    • (1995) Md. L. Rev. , vol.54 , pp. 1253
    • Houck, O.A.1    Rolland, M.2
  • 293
    • 33745226601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S.C. §§ 1451-1465 (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.16 , pp. 1451-1465
  • 294
    • 33947502161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 1452(2)(A)
    • U.S.C. § 1452(2)(A) (2000).
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.16
  • 295
    • 16344393384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 154.
    • (2000) U.S.C. , vol.16 , pp. 1455
  • 296
    • 24044531708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 159
    • U.S. 159, 168 (2001).
    • (2001) U.S. , vol.531 , pp. 168
  • 297
    • 24044531708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 174.
    • (2001) U.S. , vol.531 , pp. 174
  • 298
    • 33847231266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Do Not Be Misled: CWA Jurisdiction Extends to All Non-Navigable Tributaries of the Traditional Navigable Waters and to Their Adjacent Wetlands
    • See, e.g., 10187, 10189, (noting "potentially disastrous" and "catastrophic" effects)
    • See, e.g., Lance D. Wood, Do Not Be Misled: CWA Jurisdiction Extends to All Non-Navigable Tributaries of the Traditional Navigable Waters and to Their Adjacent Wetlands, 34 Envtl. L. Rep. 10187, 10189, 10195 (2004) (noting "potentially disastrous" and "catastrophic" effects).
    • (2004) Envtl. L. Rep. , vol.34 , pp. 10195
    • Wood, L.D.1
  • 299
    • 33947517220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Writing in dissent, Justice Stevens also predicted dire consequences from the Court's decision to "needlessly weaken[] our principal safeguard against toxic water." (Stevens, J., dissenting)
    • Writing in dissent, Justice Stevens also predicted dire consequences from the Court's decision to "needlessly weaken[] our principal safeguard against toxic water." 531 U.S. at 175 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
    • U.S. , vol.531 , pp. 175
  • 300
    • 33847231266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Do Not Be Mislead: CWA Jurisdiction Extends to All Non-Navigable Tributaries of the Traditional Navigable Waters and to Their Adjacent Wetlands
    • See (noting SWANCC was "ambiguous" and courts have been "inconsistent" in their interpretations); Amended Statement of Patrick Parenteau, Professor of Law, Vermont Law School, Before the House of Representatives Comm. on Gov't Reform, Sept. 19, 2002 ("The decision has created substantial uncertainty regarding the geographic jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act")
    • See Wood, supra note 175, at 10189 (noting SWANCC was "ambiguous" and courts have been "inconsistent" in their interpretations); Amended Statement of Patrick Parenteau, Professor of Law, Vermont Law School, Before the House of Representatives Comm. on Gov't Reform, Sept. 19, 2002 ("The decision has created substantial uncertainty regarding the geographic jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act.");
    • (2004) Envtl. L. Rep. , vol.34 , pp. 10189
    • Wood, L.D.1
  • 301
    • 0344199473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
    • Position Paper on Clean Water Act Jurisdiction Determinations Pursuant to the Supreme Court's January 9, 2001 Decision, Ass'n of State Wetland Managers, Dec. ("The section 404 regulatory program has been in turmoil ever since the Supreme Court's SWANCC decision")
    • Position Paper on Clean Water Act Jurisdiction Determinations Pursuant to the Supreme Court's January 9, 2001 Decision, Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ass'n of State Wetland Managers, Dec. 2001 ("The section 404 regulatory program has been in turmoil ever since the Supreme Court's SWANCC decision.").
    • (2001)
  • 302
    • 17144396852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on the Clean Water Act Regulatory Definition of "Waters of the United States," (proposed Jan. 15)
    • Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on the Clean Water Act Regulatory Definition of "Waters of the United States," 68 Fed. Reg. 1991 (proposed Jan. 15, 2003).
    • (2003) Fed. Reg. , vol.68 , pp. 1991
  • 303
    • 84864345346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Appendix A. (proposed Jan. 15)
    • Id. at 1995, Appendix A.
    • (2003) Fed. Reg. , vol.68 , pp. 1995
  • 304
    • 33947538437 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EPA Scraps Changes To Clean Water Act; Plans Would Have Reduced Protection
    • See Dec. 17
    • See Eric Pianin, EPA Scraps Changes To Clean Water Act; Plans Would Have Reduced Protection, Wash. Post, Dec. 17, 2003, at A20.
    • (2003) Wash. Post
    • Pianin, E.1
  • 305
    • 33947506705 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Navigating SWANCC: An Examination of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Authority Under the Clean Water Act
    • One reason given by the Army Corps and EPA to forego the rule-making was that federal courts had narrowly interpreted SWANCC's impact. Ironically, on the same day as the Army Corps/EPA announcement, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that such narrow interpretations of SWANCC were "unsustainable." See 10723
    • One reason given by the Army Corps and EPA to forego the rule-making was that federal courts had narrowly interpreted SWANCC's impact. Ironically, on the same day as the Army Corps/EPA announcement, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that such narrow interpretations of SWANCC were "unsustainable." See Daniel Simmons, Navigating SWANCC: An Examination of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Authority Under the Clean Water Act, 43 Envtl. L. Rep. 10723, 10730 (2004)
    • (2004) Envtl. L. Rep. , vol.43 , pp. 10730
    • Simmons, D.1
  • 306
    • 33947508019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re Needham
    • (citing 340, (5th Cir.))
    • (citing In re Needham, 354 F.3d 340, 345 (5th Cir. 2003)).
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.354 , pp. 345
  • 307
    • 27144535302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Waters and Wetlands: Corps of Engineers Needs to Evaluate Its District Office Practices in Determining Jurisdiction
    • U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, GAO-04-297, Feb. ("Corps districts differ in how they interpret and apply the federal regulations when determining what wetlands and other waters fall within the jurisdiction of the federal government")
    • U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, Waters and Wetlands: Corps of Engineers Needs to Evaluate Its District Office Practices in Determining Jurisdiction, GAO-04-297, Feb. 2004, at 3 ("Corps districts differ in how they interpret and apply the federal regulations when determining what wetlands and other waters fall within the jurisdiction of the federal government.").
    • (2004) , pp. 3
  • 308
    • 27144535302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Waters and Wetlands: Corps of Engineers Needs to Evaluate Its District Office Practices in Determining Jurisdiction
    • U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, GAO-04-297, Feb. ("Corps districts differ in how they interpret and apply the federal regulations when determining what wetlands and other waters fall within the jurisdiction of the federal government")
    • Id.
    • (2004) , pp. 3
  • 309
    • 27144516336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Deaton
    • See, e.g., (4th Cir.) (interpreting SWANCC narrowly)
    • See, e.g., United States v. Deaton, 332 F.3d 698 (4th Cir. 2003) (interpreting SWANCC narrowly);
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.332 , pp. 698
  • 310
    • 33947510151 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Rapanos
    • (6th Cir.) (same)
    • United States v. Rapanos, 339 F.3d 447 (6th Cit. 2003) (same);
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.339 , pp. 447
  • 311
    • 33947517030 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Rueth Dev. Co
    • (7th Cir.) (same)
    • United States v. Rueth Dev. Co., 335 F.3d 598 (7th Cir. 2003) (same).
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.335 , pp. 598
  • 312
    • 33947508019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare In re Needham
    • (5th Cir.) (after SWANCC federal jurisdiction only extends to wetlands adjacent to navigable waters)
    • Compare In re Needham, 354 F.3d 340 (5th Cir. 2003) (after SWANCC federal jurisdiction only extends to wetlands adjacent to navigable waters);
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.354 , pp. 340
  • 313
    • 27144503616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rice v. Harken Exploration Co
    • (5th Cir.) (same)
    • Rice v. Harken Exploration Co., 250 F.3d 264 (5th Cir. 2001) (same).
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.250 , pp. 264
  • 314
    • 33947508019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Needham
    • See Needham, 354 F.3d 340;
    • F.3d , vol.354 , pp. 340
  • 315
    • 27144503616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rice
    • Rice, 250 F.3d 264.
    • F.3d , vol.250 , pp. 264
  • 316
    • 33847311045 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S. Ct. 2208 (2006).
    • (2006) S. Ct. , vol.126 , pp. 2208
  • 317
    • 33947503896 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reckoning with Rapanos: Revisiting "Waters of the United States" and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation
    • For an early assessment of Rapanos and its application by lower courts, see (forthcoming)
    • For an early assessment of Rapanos and its application by lower courts, see Jonathan H. Adler, Reckoning with Rapanos: Revisiting "Waters of the United States" and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation, 14 Mo. Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev. (forthcoming 2006).
    • (2006) Mo. Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev. , vol.14
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 318
    • 33947503896 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reckoning with Rapanos: Revisiting "Waters of the United States" and the Limits of Federal Wetland Regulation
    • (forthcoming)
    • Id.
    • (2006) Mo. Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev. , vol.14
    • Adler, J.H.1
  • 319
    • 0742271520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps
    • See (noting "uncertain regulatory turf creates both demand and supply-side incentives for regulatory inattention")
    • See Buzbee, supra note 99, at 14 (noting "uncertain regulatory turf creates both demand and supply-side incentives for regulatory inattention").
    • (2003) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.89 , pp. 14
    • Buzbee, W.W.1
  • 320
    • 33947514141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • According to Professor Michael Gerhardt, [A]t least 19 states have responded to the decision by either enacting or recommending the enactment of laws to fill the void left as a result of the Court's decision. These states include, inter alia, California, Connecticut, Illinois, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin. These reactions are a clear illustration of environmental federalism in action.
  • 321
    • 0041731163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Curious Flight of the Migratory Bird Rule
    • 11079, The state of Ohio, for example, enacted an "emergency measure" to extend state regulations to isolated wetlands in July 2001, only a few months after the SWANCC decision. Sub. H.B. 231, 124th Gen. Assemb., Reg. Sess. (Ohio 2001)
    • Michael J. Gerhardt, The Curious Flight of the Migratory Bird Rule, 31 Envtl. L. Rep. 11079, 11085 (2001). The state of Ohio, for example, enacted an "emergency measure" to extend state regulations to isolated wetlands in July 2001, only a few months after the SWANCC decision. Sub. H.B. 231, 124th Gen. Assemb., Reg. Sess. (Ohio 2001).
    • (2001) Envtl. L. Rep. , vol.31 , pp. 11085
    • Gerhardt, M.J.1
  • 322
    • 33947536253 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isolated Wetlands Jurisprudence Post-SWANCC and Resulting Federal and State Attempts to Fill the Void
    • See also 91, (summarizing initial state-level responses)
    • See also C. Victor Pyle III, Isolated Wetlands Jurisprudence Post-SWANCC and Resulting Federal and State Attempts to Fill the Void, 11 Southeastern Envtl. L.J. 91, 101-06 (2002) (summarizing initial state-level responses);
    • (2002) Southeastern Envtl. L.J. , vol.11 , pp. 101-106
    • Pyle III, C.V.1
  • 323
    • 33947502749 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isolated Wetland Legislation: Running the Rapids at the State Capitol
    • (Envtl. L. Inst., Wash., D.C.), May-June (same)
    • Jan Goldman-Carter, Isolated Wetland Legislation: Running the Rapids at the State Capitol, Natl'l Wetlands Newsl. (Envtl. L. Inst., Wash., D.C.), May-June 2005, at 27 (same).
    • (2005) Natl'l Wetlands Newsl. , pp. 27
    • Goldman-Carter, J.1
  • 324
    • 33750901406 scopus 로고
    • If ...: Counterfactuals in the Law
    • See generally Robert N. Strassfeld, If ...: Counterfactuals in the Law, 60 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 339 (1992).
    • (1992) Geo. Wash. L. Rev. , vol.60 , pp. 339
    • Strassfeld, R.N.1


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