Diabetic ketoacidosis

Pediatric Diabetes

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 28-43

  Wolfsdorf, Joseph ^a   Craig, Maria E ^b   Daneman, Denis ^c   Dunger, David ^d   Edge, Julie ^e   Lee, W R Warren ^f   Rosenbloom, Arlan ^g   Sperling, Mark A ^h   Hanas, Ragnar ⁱ  

^a BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^c HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^e JOHN RADCLIFFE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^f KK Hospital   (Singapore)

^g UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^h CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

ⁱ UDDEVALLA HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BICARBONATE; CHLORIDE; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; INSULIN ASPART; INSULIN LISPRO; LONG ACTING INSULIN; MANNITOL; PHOSPHATE; POTASSIUM; SHORT ACTING DRUG; SODIUM; SODIUM CHLORIDE; WATER;

ARTICLE; BRAIN EDEMA; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; ELECTROLYTE BLOOD LEVEL; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; EMERGENCY CARE; FLUID THERAPY; GLASGOW COMA SCALE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERCHLOREMIC ACIDOSIS; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOKALEMIA; INSULIN DEFICIENCY; LOW DRUG DOSE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MONITORING; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT DISEASE; REHYDRATION; RESUSCITATION; SIDE EFFECT;

BRAIN EDEMA; CHILD; DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS; EMERGENCY TREATMENT; FLUID THERAPY; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN;

EID: 33847771470     PISSN: 1399543X     EISSN: 13995448     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5448.2007.00224.x     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Foster DW, McGarry JD. The metabolic derangements and treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1983: 309: 159-169.
2. Kitabchi A, Umpierrez G, Murphy M et al. Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001: 24: 131-153.
3. McDonnell CM, Pedreira CC, Vadamalayan B, Cameron FJ, Werther GA. Diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolarity and hypernatremia: Are high-carbohydrate drinks worsening initial presentation? Pediatr Diabetes 2005: 6: 90-94.
4. Dunger DB, Sperling MA, Acerini CL et al. ESPE/LWPES consensus statement on diabetic ketoacidosis in children and adolescents. Arch Dis Child 2004: 89: 188-194.
5. Burge MR, Hardy KJ, Schade DS. Short-term fasting is a mechanism for the development of euglycemic ketoacidosis during periods of insulin deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993: 76: 1192-1198.
6. Pinkey JH, Bingley PJ, Sawtell PA, Dunger DB, Gale EA. Presentation and progress of childhood diabetes mellitus: A prospective population-based study. The Bart's-Oxford Study Group. Diabetologia 1994: 37: 70-74.
7. American Diabetes Association. Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. (Consensus statement). Diabetes Care 2000: 23: 381-389.
8. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Zeitler PS. Diabetic ketoacidosis among obese African-American adolescents with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1997: 20: 484-486.
9. Scott CR, Smith JM, Cradock MM, Pihoker C. Characteristics of youth-onset noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus at diagnosis. Pediatrics 1997: 100: 84-91.
10. Neufeld ND, Raffel LJ, Landon C, Chen YD, Vadheim CM. Early presentation of type 2 diabetes in Mexican-American youth. Diabetes Care 1998: 21: 80-86.
11. Sellers EA, Dean HJ. Diabetic ketoacidosis: A complication of type 2 diabetes in Canadian aboriginal youth. Diabetes Care 2000: 23: 1202-1204.
12. Lipton R, Keenan H, Onyemere KU, Freels S. Incidence and onset features of diabetes in African-American and Latino children in Chicago, 1985-1994. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2002: 18: 135-142.
13. Zdravkovic V, Daneman D, Hamilton J. Presentation and course of Type 2 diabetes in youth in a large multi-ethnic city. Diabet Med 2004: 21: 1144-1148.
14. Yokota Y, Kikuchi N, Matsuura N. Screening for diabetes by urine glucose testing at school in Japan. Pediatr Diabetes 2004: 5: 212-218.
15. Urakami T, Kubota S, Nitadori Y, Harada K, Owada M, Kitagawa T. Annual incidence and clinical characteristics of type 2 diabetes in children as detected by urine glucose screening in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Diabetes Care 2005: 28: 1876-1881.
16. Sugihara S, Sasaki N, Kohno H et al. Survey of current medical treatments for childhood-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus. Jpn Clin Pediatr Endocrinol 2005: 14: 65-75.
17. Chase HP, Garg SK, Jelley DH. Diabetic ketoacidosis in children and the role of outpatient management. Pediatr Rev 1990: 11: 297-304.
18. Morales AE, Rosenbloom AL. Death caused by hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state at the onset of type 2 diabetes. J Pediatr 2004: 144: 270-273.
19. Kershaw MJ, Newton T, Barrett TG, Berry K, Kirk J. Childhood diabetes presenting with hyperosmolar dehydration but without ketoacidosis: A report of three cases. Diabet Med 2005: 22: 645-647.
20. Levy-Marchal C, Papoz L, De Beaufort C et al. Clinical and laboratory features of type 1 diabetic children at the time of diagnosis. Diabet Med 1992: 9: 279-284.
21. Komulainen J, Lounamaa R, Knip M, Kaprio EA, Akerblom HK. Ketoacidosis at the diagnosis of type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus is related to poor residual beta cell function. Childhood Diabetes in Finland Study Group. Arch Dis Child 1996: 75: 410-415.
22. Levy-Marchal C, Patterson CC, Green A. Geographical variation of presentation at diagnosis of type I diabetes in children: The EURODIAB study. European and Diabetes. Diabetologia 2001: 44 (Suppl. 3): B75-B80.
23. Hanas R, Lindblad B, Lindgren F. Diabetic ketoacidosis and cerebral edema in Sweden -a 2-year population study. Diabetes 2004: 53 (Suppl. 2): A421.
24. Rewers A, Klingensmith G, Davis C et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis at onset of diabetes: The SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes 2005: 54 (Suppl. 1): A63.
25. Komulainen J, Kulmala P, Savola K et al. Clinical, autoimmune, and genetic characteristics of very young children with type 1 diabetes. Childhood Diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study Group. Diabetes Care 1999: 22: 1950-1955.
26. Rosilio M, Cotton JB, Wieliczko MC et al. Factors associated with glycemic control. A cross-sectional nationwide study in 2,579 French children with type 1 diabetes. The French Pediatric Diabetes Group. Diabetes Care 1998: 21: 1146-1153 (See comments)
27. Smith CP, Firth D, Bennett S, Howard C, Chisholm P. Ketoacidosis occurring in newly diagnosed and established diabetic children. Acta Paediatr 1998: 87: 537-541.
28. Rewers A, Chase HP, Mackenzie T et al. Predictors of acute complications in children with type 1 diabetes. JAMA 15 2002: 287: 2511-2518.
29. Hanas R, Lindblad B, Lindgren F. Predisposing conditions and insulin pump use in a 2-year population study of pediatric ketoacidosis in Sweden. Diabetes 2005: 54 (Suppl. 1): A455.
30. Morris AD, Boyle DI, McMahon AD, Greene SA, Mac Donald TM, Newton RW. Adherence to insulin treatment, glycaemic control, and ketoacidosis in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The DARTS/MEMO Collaboration. Diabetes Audit and Research in Tayside Scotland. Medicines Monitoring Unit. Lancet 1997: 350: 1505-1510.
31. Steiner MJ, Dewalt DA, Byerley JS. Is this child dehydrated? JAMA 2004: 291: 2746-2754.
32. Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974: 2: 81-84.
33. Wiggam MI, O'Kane MJ, Harper R et al. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis using normalization of blood 3-hydroxybutyrate concentration as the endpoint of emergency management. A randomized controlled study. Diabetes Care 1997: 20: 1347-1352.
34. Ham MR, Okada P, White PC. Bedside ketone determination in diabetic children with hyperglycemia and ketosis in the acute care setting. Pediatr Diabetes 2004: 5: 39-43.
35. Malone JI, Brodsky SJ. The value of electrocardiogram monitoring in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 1980: 3: 543-547.
36. Soler NG, Bennett MA, Fitzgerald MG, Malins JM. Electrocardiogram as a guide to potassium replacement in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes 1974: 23: 610-615.
37. Malone JI, Root AW. Plasma free insulin concentrations: Keystone to effective management of diabetes mellitus in children. J Pediatr 1981: 99: 862-867.
38. Monroe KW, King W, Atchison JA. Use of PRISM scores in triage of pediatric patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Manag Care 1997: 3: 253-258.
39. Bonadio WA, Gutzeit MF, Losek JD, Smith DS. Outpatient management of diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Dis Child 1988: 142: 448-450.
40. Linares MY, Schunk JE, Lindsay R. Laboratory presentation in diabetic ketoacidosis and duration of therapy. Pediatr Emerg Care 1996: 12: 347-351.
41. Atchley D, Loeb R, Richards D Jr, Benedict E, Driscoll M. On diabetic ketoacidosis: A detailed study of electrolyte balances following the withdrawal and reestablishment of insulin therapy. J Clin Invest 1933: 12: 297-326.
42. Nabarro J, Spencer A, Stowers J. Metabolic studies in severe diabetic ketosis. Q J Med 1952: 82: 225-248.
43. Mackenzie A, Barnes G, Shann F. Clinical signs of dehydration in children. Lancet 1989: 2: 605-607.
44. Koves IH, Neutze J, Donath S et al. The accuracy of clinical assessment of dehydration during diabetic ketoacidosis in childhood. Diabetes Care 2004: 27: 2485-2487.
45. Harris GD, Fiordalisi I. Physiologic management of diabetic ketoacidemia. A 5-year prospective pediatric experience in 231 episodes. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1994: 148: 1046-1052.
46. Katz MA. Hyperglycemia-induced hyponatremia -calculation of expected serum sodium depression. N Engl J Med 1973: 289: 843-844.
47. Hillier TA, Abbott RD, Barrett EJ. Hyponatremia: Evaluating the correction factor for hyperglycemia. Am J Med 1999: 106: 399-403.
48. Harris GD, Fiordalisi I, Harris WL, Mosovich LL, Finberg L. Minimizing the risk of brain herniation during treatment of diabetic ketoacidemia: a retrospective and prospective study. J Pediatr 1990: 117: 22-31.
49. Hale PM, Rezvani I, Braunstein AW, Lipman TH, Martinez N, Garibaldi L. Factors predicting cerebral edema in young children with diabetic ketoacidosis and new onset type I diabetes. Acta Paediatr 1997: 86: 626-631.
50. Glaser N, Barnett P, Mccaslin I et al. Risk factors for cerebral edema in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. The Pediatric Emergency Medicine Collaborative Research Committee of the American Academy of Pediatrics. N Engl J Med 2001: 344: 264-269.
51. Brown TB. Cerebral oedema in childhood diabetic ketoacidosis: Is treatment a factor? Emerg Med J 2004: 21: 141-144.
52. Dunger DB, Sperling MA, Acerini CL et al. European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology/Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society consensus statement on diabetic ketoacidosis in children and Eadolescents. Pediatrics 2004: 113: e133-e140.
53. Adrogue HJ, Barrero J, Eknoyan G. Salutary effects of modest fluid replacement in the treatment of adults with diabetic ketoacidosis. Use in patients without extreme volume deficit. JAMA 1989: 262: 2108-2113.
54. Mel JM, Werther GA. Incidence and outcome of diabetic cerebral oedema in childhood: Are there predictors? J Paediatr Child Health 1995: 31: 17-20.
55. Wagner A, Risse A, Brill HL et al. Therapy of severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Zero-mortality under very-low-dose insulin application. Diabetes Care 1999: 22: 674-677.
56. Rother KI, Schwenk WFN. Effect of rehydration fluid with 75 mmol/L of sodium on serum sodium concentration and serum osmolality in young patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Mayo Clin Proc 1994: 69: 1149-1153.
57. Felner EI, White PC. Improving management of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Pediatrics 2001: 108: 735-740.
58. Duck SC, Wyatt DT. Factors associated with brain herniation in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. J Pediatr 1988: 113: 10-14.
59. Adrogue HJ, Eknoyan G, Suki WK. Diabetic ketoacidosis: Role of the kidney in the acid-base homeostasis re-evaluated. Kidney Int 1984: 25: 591-598.
60. Oh MS, Carroll HJ, Uribarri J. Mechanism of normochloremic and hyperchloremic acidosis in diabetic ketoacidosis. Nephron 1990: 54: 1-6.
61. Waldhausl W, Kleinberger G, Korn A, Dudczak R, Bratusch-Marrain P, Nowotny P. Severe hyperglycemia: Effects of rehydration on endocrine derangements and blood glucose concentration. Diabetes 1979: 28: 577-584.
62. Owen OE, Licht JH, Sapir DG. Renal function and effects of partial rehydration during diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes 1981: 30: 510-518.
63. Luzi L, Barrett EJ, Groop LC, Ferrannini E, Defronzo RA. Metabolic effects of low-dose insulin therapy on glucose metabolism in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes 1988: 37: 1470-1477.
64. Kitabchi AE. Low-dose insulin therapy in diabetic ketoacidosis: Fact or fiction? Diabetes Metab Rev 1989: 5: 337-363.
65. Edge J, Jakes R, Roy Y et al. The UK case-control study of cerebral oedema complicating diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Diabetologia 2006: 49: 2002-2009.
66. Schade DS, Eaton RP. Dose response to insulin in man: Differential effects on glucose and ketone body regulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977: 44: 1038-1053.
67. Lindsay R, Bolte RG. The use of an insulin bolus in low-dose insulin infusion for pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Emerg Care 1989: 5: 77-79.
68. Soler NG, Fitzgerald MG, Wright AD, Malins JM. Comparative study of different insulin regimens in management of diabetic ketoacidosis. Lancet 1975: 2: 1221-1224.
69. Martin MM, Martin AA. Continuous low-dose infusion of insulin in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. J Pediatr 1976: 89: 560-564.
70. Fisher JN, Shahshahani MN, Kitabchi AE. Diabetic ketoacidosis: Low-dose insulin therapy by various routes. N Engl J Med 1977: 297: 238-241.
71. Lightner ES, Kappy MS, Revsin B. Low-dose intravenous insulin infusion in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis: Biochemical effects in children. Pediatrics 1977: 60: 681-688.
72. Kappy MS, Lightner ES. Low-dose intravenous insulin in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Dis Child 1979: 133: 523-525.
73. Drop SL, Duval-Arnould JM, Gober AE, Hersh JH, Mcenery PT, Knowles HC. Low-dose intravenous insulin infusion versus subcutaneous insulin injection: A controlled comparative study of diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatrics 1977: 59: 733-738.
74. Edwards GA, Kohaut EC, Wehring B, Hill LL. Effectiveness of low-dose continuous intravenous insulin infusion in diabetic ketoacidosis. A prospective comparative study. J Pediatr 1977: 91: 701-705.
75. Burghen GA, Etteldorf JN, Fisher JN, Kitabchi AQ. Comparison of high-dose and low-dose insulin by continuous intravenous infusion in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Diabetes Care 1980: 3: 15-20.
76. Sacks HS, Shahshahani M, Kitabchi AE, Fisher JN, Young RT. Similar responsiveness of diabetic ketoacidosis to low-dose insulin by intramuscular injection and albumin-free infusion. Ann Intern Med 1979: 90: 36-42.
77. Umpierrez GE, Latif K, Stoever J et al. Efficacy of subcutaneous insulin lispro versus continuous intravenous regular insulin for the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med 2004: 117: 291-296.
78. Umpierrez GE, Cuervo R, Karabell A, Latif K, Freire AX, Kitabchi AE. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis with subcutaneous insulin aspart. Diabetes Care 2004: 27: 1873-1878.
79. Della M anna T, Steinmetz L, Campos PR et al. Subcutaneous Use of a Fast-Acting Insulin Analog: An alternative treatment for pediatric patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 2005: 28: 1856-1861.
80. Butler A, Talbot N, Burnett C, Stanbury J, Mac Lachlan E. Metabolic studies in diabetic coma. Trans Assoc Am Phys 1947: 60: 102-109.
81. Danowski T, Peters J, Rathbun J, Quashnock J, Greenman L. Studies in diabetic acidosis and coma, with particular emphasis on the retention of administered potassium. J Clin Invest 1949: 28: 1-9.
82. Darrow D, Pratt E. Retention of water and electrolyte during recovery in a patient with diabetic acidosis. J Pediatr 1952: 41: 688-696.
83. Adrogue HJ, Lederer ED, Suki WN, Eknoyan G. Determinants of plasma potassium levels in diabetic ketoacidosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 1986: 65: 163-172.
84. Defronzo RA, Felig P, Ferrannini E, Wahren J. Effect of graded doses of insulin on splanchnic and peripheral potassium metabolism in man. Am J Physiol 1980: 238: E421-427.
85. Tattersall RB. A paper which changed clinical practice (slowly). Jacob Holler on potassium deficiency in diabetic acidosis (1946). Diabet Med 1999: 16: 978-984.
86. Nabarro JD, Spencer AG, Stowers JM. Treatment of diabetic ketosis. Lancet 17 1952: 1: 983-989.
87. Guest G. Organic phosphates of the blood and mineral metabolism in diabetic acidosis. Am J Dis Child 1942: 64: 401-412.
88. Guest G, Rapoport S. Electrolytes of blood plasma and cells in diabetic acidosis and during recovery. Proc Am Diabetes Assoc 1947: 7: 95-115.
89. Riley MS, Schade DS, Eaton RP. Effects of insulin infusion on plasma phosphate in diabetic patients. Metabolism 1979: 28: 191-194.
90. Alberti KG, Emerson PM, Darley JH, Hockaday TD. 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate and tissue oxygenation in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. Lancet 26 1972: 2: 391-395.
91. Knochel JP. The pathophysiology and clinical characteristics of severe hypophosphatemia. Arch Intern Med 1977: 137: 203-220.
92. O'C onnor LR, Wheeler WS, Bethune JE. Effect of hypophosphatemia on myocardial performance in man. N Engl J Med 1977: 297: 901-903.
93. Gibby OM, Veale KE, Hayes TM, Jones JG, Wardrop CA. Oxygen availability from the blood and the effect of phosphate replacement on erythrocyte 2,3-diphosphoglycerate and haemoglobin-oxygen affinity in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetologia 1978: 15: 381-385.
94. Keller U, Berger W. Prevention of hypophosphatemia by phosphate infusion during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar coma. Diabetes 1980: 29: 87-95.
95. Wilson HK, Keuer SP, Lea AS, Boyd AE 3rd, Eknoyan G. Phosphate therapy in diabetic ketoacidosis. Arch Intern Med 1982: 142: 517-520.
96. Becker DJ, Brown DR, Steranka BH, Drash AL. Phosphate replacement during treatment of diabetic ketosis. Effects on calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. Am J Dis Child 1983: 137: 241-246.
97. Fisher JN, Kitabchi AE. A randomized study of phosphate therapy in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983: 57: 177-180.
98. Clerbaux T, Reynaert M, Willems E, Frans A. Effect of phosphate on oxygen-hemoglobin affinity, diphosphoglycerate and blood gases during recovery from diabetic ketoacidosis. Intensive Care Med 1989: 15: 495-498.
99. Bohannon NJ. Large phosphate shifts with treatment for hyperglycemia. Arch Intern Med 1989: 149: 1423-1425.
100. Zipf WB, Bacon GE, Spencer ML, Kelch RP, Hopwood NJ, Hawker CD. Hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and transient hypoparathyroidism during therapy with potassium phosphate in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 1979: 2: 265-268.
101. Winter RJ, Harris CJ, Phillips LS, Green OC. Diabetic ketoacidosis. Induction of hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia by phosphate therapy. Am J Med 1979: 67: 897-900.
102. Hale PJ, Crase J, Nattrass M. Metabolic effects of bicarbonate in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 1984: 289: 1035-1038.
103. Morris LR, Murphy MB, Kitabchi AE. Bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Intern Med 1986: 105: 836-840.
104. Okuda Y, Adrogue HJ, Field JB, Nohara H, Yamashita K. Counterproductive effects of sodium bicarbonate in diabetic ketoacidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996: 81: 314-320.
105. Green SM, Rothrock SG, Ho JD et al. Failure of adjunctive bicarbonate to improve outcome in severe pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Emerg Med 1998: 31: 41-48.
106. Assal JP, Aoki TT, Manzano FM, Kozak GP. Metabolic effects of sodium bicarbonate in management of diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes 1974: 23: 405-411.
107. Ohman JL Jr, Marliss EB, Aoki TT, Munichoodappa CS, Khanna VV, Kozak GP. The cerebrospinal fluid in diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1971: 284: 283-290.
108. Soler NG, Bennett MA, Dixon K, Fitzgerald MG, Malins JM. Potassium balance during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis with special reference to the use of bicarbonate. Lancet 1972: 2: 665-667.
109. Lever E, Jaspan JB. Sodium bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med 1983: 75: 263-268.
110. Narins RG, Cohen JJ. Bicarbonate therapy for organic acidosis: The case for its continued use. Ann Intern Med 1987: 106: 615-618.
111. Curtis JR, To T, Muirhead S, Cummings E, Daneman D. Recent trends in hospitalization for diabetic ketoacidosis in Ontario children. Diabetes Care 2002: 25: 1591-1596.
112. Edge JA, Ford-Adams ME, Dunger DB. Causes of death in children with insulin dependent diabetes 1990-96. Arch Dis Child 1999: 81: 318-323.
113. Edge JA, Hawkins MM, Winter DL, Dunger DB. The risk and outcome of cerebral oedema developing during diabetic ketoacidosis. Arch Dis Child 2001: 85: 16-22.
114. Lawrence SE, Cummings EA, Gaboury I, Daneman D. Population-based study of incidence and risk factors for cerebral edema in pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. J Pediatr 2005: 146: 688-692.
115. Haddad NG, Croffie JM, Eugster EA. Pancreatic enzyme elevations in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. J Pediatr 2004: 145: 122-124.
116. Rosenbloom AL. Intracerebral crises during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 1990: 13: 22-33.
117. Bello FA, Sotos JF. Cerebral oedema in diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Lancet 1990: 336: 64 (Letter)
118. Mahoney CP, Vlcek BW, Delaguila M. Risk factors for developing brain herniation during diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Neurol 1999: 21: 721-727.
119. Durr JA, Hoffman WH, Sklar AH, El Gammal T, Steinhart CM. Correlates of brain edema in uncontrolled IDDM. Diabetes 1992: 41: 627-632.
120. Bureau MA, Begin R, Berthiaume Y, Shapcott D, Khoury K, Gagnon N. Cerebral hypoxia from bicarbonate infusion in diabetic acidosis. J Pediatr 1980: 96: 968-973.
121. Deeb L. Development of fatal cerebral edema during outpatient therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis. Pract Diab 1989: 6: 212-213.
122. Glasgow AM. Devastating cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis before therapy. Diabetes Care 1991: 14: 77-78 (Letter)
123. Couch RM, Acott PD, Wong GW. Early onset fatal cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 1991: 14: 78-79.
124. Fiordalisi I, Harris GD, Gilliland MG. Prehospital cardiac arrest in diabetic ketoacidemia: Why brain swelling may lead to death before treatment. J Diabetes Complications 2002: 16: 214-219.
125. Edge JA. Cerebral oedema during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis: Are we any nearer finding a cause? Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2000: 16: 316-324.
126. Muir AB, Quisling RG, Yang MC, Rosenbloom AL. Cerebral Edema in Childhood Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Natural history, radiographic findings, and early identification. Diabetes Care 2004: 27: 1541-1546.
127. Franklin B, Liu J, Ginsberg-Fellner F. Cerebral edema and ophthalmoplegia reversed by mannitol in a new case of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics 1982: 69: 87-90.
128. Shabbir N, Oberfield SE, Corrales R, Kairam R, Levine LS. Recovery from symptomatic brain swelling in diabetic ketoacidosis. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1992: 31: 570-573.
129. Roberts MD, Slover RH, Chase HP. Diabetic ketoacidosis with intracerebral complications. Pediatr Diabetes 2001: 2: 109-114.
130. Curtis JR, Bohn D, Daneman D. Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Pediatr Diabetes 2001: 2: 191-194.
131. Kamat P, Vats A, Gross M, Checchia PA. Use of hypertonic saline for the treatment of altered mental status associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003: 4: 239-242.
132. Marcin JP, Glaser N, Barnett P et al. Factors associated with adverse outcomes in children with diabetic ketoacidosis-related cerebral edema. J Pediatr 2002: 141: 793-797.
133. Kanter RK, Oliphant M, Zimmerman JJ, Stuart MJ. Arterial thrombosis causing cerebral edema in association with diabetic ketoacidosis. Crit Care Med 1987: 15: 175-176.
134. Roe TF, Crawford TO, Huff KR, Costin G, Kaufman FR, Nelson MD, Jr. Brain infarction in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. J Diabetes Complications 1996: 10: 100-108.
135. Keane S, Gallagher A, Ackroyd S, Mcshane MA, Edge JA. Cerebral venous thrombosis during diabetic ketoacidosis. Arch Dis Child 2002: 86: 204-205.
136. Rosenbloom AL. Fatal cerebral infarctions in diabetic ketoacidosis in a child with previously unknown heterozygosity for factor V Leiden deficiency. J Pediatr 2004: 145: 561-562.
137. Laffel LM, Wentzell K, Loughlin C, Tovar A, Moltz K, Brink S. Sick day management using blood 3-hydroxybutyrate (3-OHB) compared with urine ketone monitoring reduces hospital visits in young people with T1DM: A randomized clinical trial. Diabet Med 2006: 23: 278-284.
138. Laffel L. Sick-day management in type 1 diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2000: 29: 707-723.
139. Hoffman WH, O'Neill P, Khoury C, Bernstein SS. Service and education for the insulin-dependent child. Diabetes Care 1978: 1: 285-288.
140. Drozda DJ, Dawson VA, Long DJ, Freson LS, Sperling MA. Assessment of the effect of a comprehensive diabetes management program on hospital admission rates of children with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Educ 1990: 16: 389-393.
141. Grey M, Boland EA, Davidson M, Li J, Tamborlane WV. Coping skills training for youth with diabetes mellitus has long-lasting effects on metabolic control and quality of life. J Pediatr 2000: 137: 107-113.
142. Golden MP, Herrold AJ, Orr DP. An approach to prevention of recurrent diabetic ketoacidosis in the pediatric population. J Pediatr 1985: 107: 195-200.
143. Holliday MA, Segar WE. The maintenance need for water in parenteral fluid therapy. Pediatrics 1957: 19: 823-832.
144. Friedman AL. Pediatric hydration therapy: Historical review and a new approach. Kidney Int 2005: 67: 380-388.
145. Hendricks K, Duggan C., eds. Manual of Pediatric Nutrition, 4th edn. Hamilton, Ontario: BC Decker, 2005
146. Darrow DC. The physiologic basis for estimating requirements for parenteral fluids. Pediatr Clin North Am 1959: 6: 29-41.