Politics as practice thoughts on a New Soviet political history

Kritika

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 27-54

  Fitzpatrick, Sheila ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33847731669     PISSN: 1531023X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/kri.2004.0009     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. From the top leadership level, recent memoirs include A. I. Mikoian, Tak bylo: Razmyshleniia o minushem (Moscow: Vagrius, 1999)
2. L. M. Kaganovich, Pamiatnye zapiski rabocbego kommunista-bol'shevika, profsoiuznogo, partiinogo, i sovetsko-gosudarstvennogo rabotnika (Moscow: Vagrius, 1996)
3. and Feliks Chuev, Tak govoril Kaganovich (Moscow: Otechestvo, 1992)
4. See, e.g., Georgi Dimitrov, Dnevnik: 9 mart 1933-6 fevruari 1949, ed. Dimitur Sirkov (Sofia: Universitetsko izd-vo Sv. Kliment Okhridski, 1997)
5. " 'Proidet desiatok let, i eti vstrechi ne vosstanovk' uzhe v pamiati' (Dnevnik V. A. Malysheva)," Istochnik, no. 5 (1997)
6. These perceptions were always stronger in the United States than in Britain, which may be one reason that British scholars have produced some of the most interesting work on Soviet political history over the years. For an argument that British political history (by British scholars on Britain) has been flourishing despite the disdain in which some social and cultural historians hold the field, see Susan Pedersen, "What Is Political History Now?" in What Is History Now? ed. David Cannadine (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 37-56
7. The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky, 1921-1929 (London: Oxford University Press, 1959)
8. Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879-1929: A Study in History and Personality (New York: Norton, 1973)
9. Tucker, Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928-1941 (New York: Norton, 1990)
10. Adam B. Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York: Macmillan, 1965 - this is essentially a political biography of Lenin)
11. Ulam, Stalin: The Man and His Era (London: Allan Lane, 1973)
12. and Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888-1938 ( (New York: Knopf, 1973)
13. Leonard B. Schapiro, The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State. First Phase, 1917-1922 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955)
14. Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953)
15. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Ride (London: Macmillan, 1958)
16. Robert V. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960)
17. and T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership in the U.S.S.R. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968)
18. See particularly Frederic J. Fleron, Jr., ed., Communist Studies and the Social Sciences (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969)
19. Chalmers Johnson, ed., Change in Communist Systems (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970)
20. H. Gordon Skilling and Franklin Griffiths, eds., Interest Groups in Soviet Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971)
21. Jerry F. Hough, The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977)
22. Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979)
23. and Stephen F. Cohen, Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985)
24. Alex Inkeles and Raymond Bauer, The Soviet Citizen: Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959)
25. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhorn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956)
26. Cyril E. Black, The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative History (New York: Free Press, 1975)
27. and Adam B. Ulam, "The Historical Role of Marxism," in his The New Face of Soviet Totalitarianism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963)
28. See Robert C. Tucker, "Culture, Political Culture, and Communist Society," Political Science Quarterly 88, 2 (1973): 173-90
29. See, e.g., Alex Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power: The 1917 Revolution in Petrograd (New York: Norton, 1976)
30. Robert Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study in Organisational Change, 1917-1923 (London: Macmillan, 1979)
31. and J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)
32. E. H. Carr's multivolume History of Soviet Russia (London: Macmillan, 1950-)
33. and Michal Reiman's The Birth of Stalinism, trans. George Saunders (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987) also fit this description
34. H.-H. Schröder, Arbeiterschaft, Wirtschaftsführung and Parteibürokratie während der Neuen Ökonomischen Politik: Eine Sozialgeschichte der bolschewistischen Partei, 1920-1928 (Berlin: Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, Bd. 31, 1982)
35. E. A. Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia: The Rise and Fall of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, 1920-1934 (London: Macmillan, 1987)
36. Rees, Stalinism and Soviet Rail Transport, 1928-1941 (London: Macmillan, 1995)
37. Fitzpatrick, "Ordzhonikidze's Takeover of Vesenkha, 1930: A Case Study in Soviet Bureaucratic Politics," Soviet Studies 37, 2 (1985)
38. T. H. Rigby, Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom, 1917-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979)
39. and Timothy Dunmore, The Soviet Command Economy: The Soviet State Apparatus and Economic Policy, 1946-1953 (New York: St. Martins, 1980)
40. Mainly with reference to the October 1917 revolution: see Ronald G. Suny, "Toward a Social History of the October Revolution," American Historical Review 88, 1 (1983): 31-52
41. On Stalinism and social support, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, "The Russian Revolution and Social Mobility," Politics and Society, Fall 1984
42. and Fitzpatrick, "Stalin and the Making of a New Elite" (1979), in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992)
43. and Robert W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996)
44. For historians' work on experts and the role of expertise in policy-making, see David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970)
45. Sheila Fitzpatrick, "Cultural Orthodoxies under Stalin" (1975) in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front
46. and Douglas R. Weiner, Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation, and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988). Political scientists writing on this topic in the 1970s include Susan Gross Solomon, Peter Solomon, and Jerry Hough
47. This characteristic is identified in Igal Halfin and Jochen Hellbeck, "Rethinking the Stalinist Subject: Stephen Kotkin's 'Magnetic Mountain' and the State of Soviet Historical Studies," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 44 (1996): 456-63, here 456. Without sharing their negative assessment, I would agree that is a characteristic Kotkin inherited from, or at any rate had in common with, revisionists
48. Julie A. Cassiday, The Enemy on Trial: Early Soviet Courts on Stage and Screen (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000)
49. Sheila Fitzpatrick, "How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces," Russian Review 52, 3 (1993): 299-320
50. Elizabeth Wood, "The Trial of the New Woman: Citizens-in-Training in the New Soviet Republic," Gender and History 13, 3 (2001): 524-45
51. Wood, "The Trial of Lenin: Legitimating the Revolution through Political Theater, 1920-1923," Russian Review 61, 2 (2002): 235-48
52. and Robert Argenbright, "Marking NEP's Slippery Path: The Krasnoshchekov Show Trial," Russian Review 61, 2 (2002): 249-75
53. Oleg Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual in Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 123-63
54. Igal Halfin, From Darkness to Light: Class, Consciousness, and Salvation in Revolutionary Russia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 264-314
55. Berthold Unfried, "Rituale von Konfession und Selbstkritik: Bilder vom stalinistischen Kader," Jahrbuch für historische Kommunismusforschung (Berlin: Académie Verlag, 1994)
56. Sheila Fitzpatrick, "Lives under Fire: Autobiographical Narratives and Their Challenges in Stalin's Russia," in De Russie et d'ailleurs: Feux croisés sur l'histoire. Pour Marc Ferro (Paris: Institut d'études slaves, 1995), 225-32
57. and J. Arch Getty, "Samokritika Rituals in the Stalinist Central Committee 1933-38," Russian Review 58, 1 (1999): 49-70
58. Christel Lane, The Rites of Rulers: Ritual in Industrial Society - The Soviet Case (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)
59. Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983)
60. Karen Petrone, Life Has Become More Joyous, Comrades: Celebrations in the Time of Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000)
61. and Rosalinde Sartorti, "Stalinism and Carnival: Organization and Aesthetics of Political Holidays," in The Culture of the Stalin Period, ed. Hans Günther (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990)
62. See, for example, Peter Holquist, " 'Information Is the Alpha and Omega of Our Work': Bolshevik Surveillance in Its Pan-European Context," Journal of Modern History 69, 3 (1997): 415-50
63. Halfin, From Darkness to Light
64. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001)
65. Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual
66. and David L. Hoffman and Yanni Kotsonis, eds., Russian Modernity: Politics, Practices, Knowledge (London: Macmillan, 2000). " Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia: Terror, Propaganda, and Dissent, 1934-1941 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)
67. See, for example, James R. Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999)
68. and Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian - Russian Borderland, 1870s-1990s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
69. More relevant precursors to the new regional history are probably Jerry F. Hough, The Soviet Prefects: The Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969)
70. and Roberta Manning, "Government and the Soviet Countryside in the Stalinist 1930s: The Case of Belyi Raion in 1937," Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 301 (1984)
71. On petitioning, one of the early important studies was by a German political scientist: Margareta Mommsen, Hilf Mir, Mein Recht Zu Finden: Russische Bittschriften von Iwan dem Schrecklichen bis Gorbatschow (Frankfurt am Main: Propyläen Verlag, 1987)
72. Later work by historians includes Golfo Alexopoulos, Stalin's Outcasts: Aliens, Citizens, and the Soviet State, 1926-36 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003)
73. Sheila Fitzpatrick, "Supplicants and Citizens: Public Letter-Writing in Soviet Russia in the 1930s," Slavic Review 55, 1 (1996): 78-105
74. "Petitions and Denunciations in Russia from Muscovy to the Stalin Era," special issue ed. S. Fitzpatrick, Russian History/Histoire russe 24, 1-2 (1997)
75. and Matthew E. Lenoe, "Letter-Writing and the State: Reader Correspondence with Newspapers as a Source for Early Soviet History," Cahiers du monde russe 40, 1-2 (1999): 139-69
76. See particularly O. V. Khlevniuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze: Konflikty v Politbiuro v 30-e gody (Moscow: Rossiia molodaia, 1993)
77. and Khlevniuk, Politbiuro: Mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti v 1930-e gody (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996)
78. J. Arch Getty, "State and Society under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s," Slavic Review 50, 1 (1991)
79. Getty, "Pragmatists and Puritans: The Rise and Fall of the Party Control Commission," Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 1208 (1997)
80. and J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999)
81. Notably Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000)
82. Derek Watson, Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930-41 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996)
83. Yoram Gorlizki, "Ordinary Stalinism: The Council of Ministers and the Soviet Neopatrimonial State, 1946-1953," Journal of Modern History 74 (2002): 699-736
84. and E. A. Rees, ed., Decision-Making in the Stalinist Command Economy, 1932-37 (London: Macmillan, 1997)
85. Note also Gorlizki's "Stalin's Cabinet: The Politburo and Decision-Making in the Postwar Years," Europe-Asia Studies 53, 2 (2001): 291-312
86. part of this monograph was published as "À l'origine des purges de 1937: L'Exemple de l'administration de la statistique démographique" in Cahiers du monde russe 39, 1-2 (1998): 169-96
87. Markus Wehner, Bauernpolitik im Proletarischen Staat (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1998)
88. Andrea Graziosi, "'Building the First System of State Industry in History': Piatakov's VSNKh and the Crisis of NEP, 1923-1926," Cahiers de monde russe et soviétique 32 (1991): 1539-80
89. James W. Heinzen, "'Alien' Personnel in the Soviet State: The People's Commissariat of Agriculture under Proletarian Dictatorship, 1918-1929," Slavic Review 56, 1 (1997): 73-100
90. Nicolas Werth, "L'OGPU en 1924: Radiographie d'une institution à son niveau d'étiage," Cahiers du monde russe 42, 2-3-4 (2001): 397-422
91. Paul M. Hagenloh, " 'Chekist in Essence, Chekist in Spirit': Regular and Political Police in the 1930s," Cahiers du monde russe 42, 2-3-4 (2001): 447-76
92. Steven D. Richmond, "Ideologically Firm: Soviet Theater Censorship, 1921-1928" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1996)
93. George Lin, "Fighting in Vain: NKVD RSFSR in the 1920s" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1997)
94. and Chris Burton, "Medical Welfare during Late Stalinism: A Study of Doctors and the Soviet Health System, 1945-53" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 2000)
95. Institutional conflicts over economic policy also figure prominently in R. W. Daviess volumes on the economy: The Socialist Offensive: The Collectivization of Soviet Agriculture, 1929-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980)
96. The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 1929-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989)
97. and Crisis and Prop-ess in the Soviet Economy, 1931-1939 (London: Macmillan, 1996)
98. as they did in the volume he coauthored with E. H. Carr-Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1969)-part of Carr's History of Soviet Russia
99. Brigitte Studer, Un parti sous influence: Le Parti communiste suisse, une section du Kornintern, 1931 à 1939 (Lausanne: L'Age d'homme, 1994)
100. Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001)
101. See Terry Martin, "Modernization or Neo-Traditionalism? Ascribed Nationality and Soviet Primordialism," in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick (London: Routledge, 2000), 348-67
102. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain
103. Halfin, From Darkness into Light (university purges in the 1920s)
104. Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual (party purges of the 1930s)
105. and Weiner, Making Sense of War (postwar party purges)
106. For scholarship using advice literature as a source, see Catriona Kelly, Refining Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender front Catherine to Yeltsin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
107. and Vadim Volkov, "The Concept of Kul'turnost': Notes on the Stalinist Civilizing Process," in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. Fitzpatrick, 210-30
108. For an example (on kolkhoz meetings), see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 268-71
109. See, e.g. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977)
110. and Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steven Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), part 2
111. See, for example, Alf Lüdtke, ed., The History of Everyday Life, trans. William Templer (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995)
112. See, e.g., Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants
113. Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)
114. Viola, ed., Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002)
115. V. A. Kozlov, Massovye besporiadki v SSSR pri Khrushcheve i Brezhneve (Novosibirsk: Sibirskii khronograf, 1999)
116. Jeffrey Rossman, "The Teikovo Cotton Workers' Strike of April 1932," Russian Review 56, 1 (1997): 44-69
117. and Michael David-Fox, Peter Holquist, and Marshall Poe, eds., The Resistance Debate in Russian and Soviet History (Kritika Historical Studies 1, ed. Michael David-Fox, Peter Holquist, and Alexander Martin) (Bloomington, IN: Slavica Publishers, 2003)
118. On denunciation, see Sheila Fitzpatrick and Robert Gellately, eds., Accusatory Practices: Denunciation in Modern European History, 1789-1989 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997)
119. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Russia in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)
120. and Holquist, "'Information Is the Alpha and Omega of Our Work,' " for a non-social-history approach
121. Thurston, Life and Terror, contains seven chapters, of which five deal with various aspects of politics (high politics, police, terror)
122. Particularly James R. Harris, whose in-depth exploration in The Great Urals of socio-political practices like semeistvennosi and mutual protection, as well as purely political practices like lobbying and information manipulation, is directed primarily toward understanding politics
123. Alexopoulos, Stalin's Outcasts
124. Alexei Kojevnikov, "Games of Stalinist Democracy: Ideological Discussions in Soviet Sciences 1947-52," in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. Fitzpatrick, 142-75
125. and Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997)
126. Kojevnikov, "Games of Stalinist Democracy," 144
127. At the meeting, Orbeli put up a vigorous defence of his position and the value of free scientific argument and refused, despite strong attacks from competitors for the Pavlov legacy, to offer a proper self-criticism; and his stubbornness prevented the meeting from coming to any clear resolution. Orbeli paid for this, however, by losing his administrative positions and status as field leader. For detailed assessments, see David Joravsky, Russian Psychology: A Critical History (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 406-14
128. and Krementsov, Stalinist Science, 272-74
129. Joravsky, Russian Psychology, 406
130. Chuev, Molotov, 243
131. In the arts, the diskussii of the late 1940s seem to have been occasions for disciplining professions rather than occasions for real debate. If their outcomes depended "upon the play," it was perhaps only to the extent that some of those criticized came out more damaged (less successful in their self-criticism play) than others. On the 1920s, see A. I. Mikkoian, Mysli i vospominaniia o Lenine (Moscow: Politizdat, 1970)
132. Dorogoi bor'by, bk. 1 (Moscow: Politizdat, 1971)
133. On the Stalin period (mainly postwar), see N. S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, trans, and ed. Strobe Talbott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970)
134. Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, trans, and ed. Talbott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974)
135. and Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, trans, and ed. Jerrold L. Schecter (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990)
136. and Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1962)
137. Dimitrov and Stalin, 1934-1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives, ed. Alexander Dallin and F. I. Firsov (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000)
138. Bol'shevistskoe rukovodstvo: Perepiska, 1912-1947, ed. A. V. Kvashonkin et al. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996)
139. and Sovetskoe rukovodstvo: Perepiska, 1928-1941, ed. A. V. Kvashonkin et al. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1999)
140. On perlustration, see Izmozik, Glaza i ushi rezhima. Molotov told Chuev that "in my opinion they tapped my telephone my whole life. The Chekists told me, I did not check. Simply without any particular purpose, just routine" (Sto sorok besed, 314). Perhaps the telephone logs still exist somewhere in the Federal Security Service (FSB) archives. In Fascist Italy at the same period, such records survived (and show that even Mussolini's own telephone conversations were tapped): see R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini (London: Arnold, 2002), 277
141. Khlevniuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze, 89-95
142. Khrushchev Remembers, 309-10
143. See, for example, Harris, Great Urals, 156-63
144. and Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, 195-96. 61 Pikoia, identifying the two basic postwar groupings as Zhdanov-Kuznetsov and Malenkov-Beria, was unsure how to categorize this phenomenon: "the party leadership, which at its Tenth Congress condemned factionalism, was factional all the same. But these groups inside the nomenklatura carefully masked themselves. The reasons uniting people in groups (gruppirovki) are not always evident. However, without studying group interests that existed inside the highest zveno of the state-party nomenklatura, without analysis of their mutual struggle, not seldom in the full sense bloody and their alliances, sometimes seeming unnatural, it is impossible to understand the history of the regime in the postwar USSR." R. G. Pikhoia, Sovetskii soiuz: Istoriia vlasti, 1945-1991 ((Moscow: Izdatel'stvo RAGS, 1998), 56-74, 96 (here 56)
145. For speculation on the existence of a moderate Zhdanov faction in the leadership in the 1930s, see Getty, Origin of the Great Purges, 199-201
146. Khlevniuk, Politbiuro, 94 and 168-86
147. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 12-17
148. see Naum Jasny, Soviet Economists of the Twenties: Names to Be Remembered (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972)
149. Pis'ma, 194 (Stalin to Molotov, 2 August 1930)
150. Khlevniuk, Politburo, 36-37
151. Stalin i Kaganovich, 315 (Kaganovich to Stalin, 26 August 1933), 318 (Stalin to Kaganovich, Molotov, and Ordzhonikidze, 29 August 1933
152. See Fitzpatrick, Commissariat of Enlightenment and Education and Social Mobility
153. Chuev, Kaganovich, Shepilov, 175-76
154. Michael McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution: Political Change from Gorbachev to Putin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001)
155. McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution
156. and Jerry E, Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985-1991 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1997)
157. McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, 57-58, 200, 348-49
158. See, e.g., Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed
159. Reiman, Birth of Stalinism
160. and Cohen, Bukharin
161. Chuev, Sto sorok besed, 181, 184, 200
162. Stephen F. Cohen, "Bolshevism and Stalinism," in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: Norton, 1977), 3-29
163. See Matthew Lenoe, "Agitation, Propaganda, and the 'Stalinization' of the Soviet Press, 1925-1933," Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 1305 (1998)
164. This is an elaboration of an earlier Poliburo decision of 5 May 1927, also discussed in the Politburo on 21 April 1927: Politbiuro TsK RKP(b)-VKP(b): Povestki dnia zasedanii 1919-1952. Katalog, vol. 1: 1919-1929 (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2000), 533 and 536