The arctic waters and the Northwest Passage: A final revisit

Ocean Development and International Law

Volumn 38, Issue 1-2, 2007, Pages 3-69

  Pharand, Donat ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Arctic waters; Canada; Northwest Passage

Indexed keywords

GLOBALIZATION; INTERNATIONAL LAW; MARINE POLICY; SHIPPING;

ARCTIC OCEAN; CANADA; NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 33847273217     PISSN: 00908320     EISSN: 15210642     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00908320601071314     Document Type: Article

References (361)

1. See Willy Ostreng, "The International Northern Sea Route Programme (INSROP): Applicable Lessons Learned," 42 Polar Record 71-81, at 73 (2006)
2. and Yury M. Ivanov, Alexander P. Ushakov, and Anatoly N. Yakovlev, Current Use of the Northern Sea Route, 30 pp., 7-8 (Working Paper no. 96, 1998).
3. John C. Falkingham, "Sea Ice in the Canadian Arctic in the 21st Century," 5 pp., at 2 (Sept. 2000), available at www.taiga.net/nce/ seaice.html.
4. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Impacts of aWarming Arctic, 140 pp., at 84 Cambridge (Cambridge: University Press, 2004).
5. Government of Canada, Canada's International Policy Statement: A Role of Pride and Influence in the World Overview, (Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada, 2005).
6. This study resulted in the publication of 167 peer-reviewed working papers covering all forseeable problems arising out of opening the Northern Sea Route to international shipping. See the list and a summary of each paper in The INSROP Newsletter, no. 1, vol. 7 (Mar. 1999).
7. For a discussion of the results of the 6-year study, see "Proceedings of the Northern Sea Route Conference," Oslo, Nov. 18-20, 1999, in The 21stCentury - Turning Point for the Northern Sea Route, 310 pp. (2000).
8. See, in particular, the following INSROP Working Papers: A. L. Kolodkin, V. Y. Markov, and A. P. Ushakov, Legal Regime of Navigation in the Russian Arctic (no. 94) 1997
9. A. L. Kolodkin, I. N. Mikhina, E. N. Mokhova and O. V. Kulistikova, Legal Regime of Navigation in the Russian Arctic (no. 147, 1999)
10. and R. Douglas Brubaker, International Law and Russian Arctic Waters: Passage by State Vessels and Concluding Remarks (no. 159, 1999).
11. See also R. Douglas Brubaker, "Straits in the Russian Arctic," 32 Ocean Development and International Law 263-287 (2001)
12. and "The Legal Status of the Russian Baselines in the Arctic," 30 Ocean Development and International Law 191-233 (1999).
13. Actually, the United States maintained that it did not ask for permission, and that its communication of the projected crossing did not constitute notification.
14. Statement in the House of Commons by Secretary of State for External Affairs, Joe Clark, Canada, House of Commons, Debates, 6462-6464, 10 Sept. 1985, reproduced in Dep't. of External Affairs, Statement Series 85/49 and in 24 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 416-420 (1986).
15. Ibid., at 418.
16. 516 U.N.T.S. 205.
17. 1833 U.N.T.S. 397.
18. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 7(6), and Law of the Sea Convertion (here in after LOS Convention), art. 10(6). [Emphasis added.]
19. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 12(2), and LOS Convention, art. 15. [Emphasis added.]
20. LOS Convention, art. 198(1)(a)(i). [Emphasis added.]
21. LOS Convention, Annex V (7)(2).
22. See "Declarations or Statements upon UNCLOS Ratification," Canada, Nov. 7, 2003, available on the Web site of the U.N. Division of Ocean and the Law of the Sea at www.un.org/Depts/los/index.htm. [Emphasis added.]
23. See U.N. Secretariat Memorandum on Historic Bays, A/Conf. 13/1 (1957).
24. For further sources on this subject, see Sir C. Hurst, "The Territoriality of Bays," 3 British Yearbook of International Law 42-54 (1922-23)
25. L. J. Bouchez, The Regime of Bays in International Law (Leyden: Sijthoff, 1964)
26. and M. Bourquin, "Les baies historiques," in Mélanges Sauser Hall (Paris: Neuchatel, 1952, 37-51).
27. [1951] I.C.J. Rep. 116, at 130.
28. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
29. For a discussion of these attempts, see Y. Z. Blum, Historic Titles in International Law, at 332-35 (1965).
30. See text of the resolution reproduced in ibid., at 307.
31. "Juridical Regime of Historic Waters, Including Historic Bays," U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 4/143, at 23 (1962) reproduced in I.L.C. Yearbook, vol. II, 1 (1962).
32. [1982] I.C.J. Rep., at 74, para. 100.
33. Ibid., at 76, para. 104.
34. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 144. [Emphasis added.]
35. Ibid., at 143.
36. G. Gidel, Le Droit International Public de la Mer, vol. III, at 651 (Paris: Recueil Sirey, 1934).
37. For a more complete examination of the basic characteristics of historic waters generally, see Donat Pharand, Canada's Arctic Waters in International Law, 91-112 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
38. Supra note 16.
39. Supra note 22.
40. See in particular, Bouchez, supra note 17
41. Blum, supra note 20
42. F. Francioni, "The Status of the Gulf of Sirta in International Law," 11 Syracuse Journal of International Law 311-326 (1984)
43. Y. Z. Blum, "The Gulf of Sirta Incident," 80 American Journal of International Law 668-667 (1986)
44. and Y. Z. Blum, "Historic Rights," Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vol. 2, (1988), 710-716.
45. Bouchez, supra note 17, at 218.
46. Tunisia/Libya Case, [1982] I.C.J. Rep., at 73. Although the Court did not accept the argument of Tunisia based on historic fishing rights, this does not detract from the accuracy of the statement.
47. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 142.
48. For an excellent discussion on the importance of "the attitude of foreign States," see D. P. O'Connell, The International Law of the Sea, vol. I, at 433-435 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).
49. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 138.
50. Ibid.
51. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 40-41.
52. The decisions examined were: Chamizal Arbitration, 5 American Journal of International Law 782 (1911)
53. Minquiers and Ecrehos case, [1953] I.C.J. Rep. 116
54. and Fisheries case, [1951] I.C.J. Rep., 116.
55. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 139. [Emphasis added.]
56. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
57. [1951] I.C.J. Pleadings, vol. II, at 645.
58. [1951] I.C.J. Pleadings, vol. I, at 566.
59. [1951] I.C.J. Pleadings, vol. II, at 646.
60. See chapter III, "Les titres historiques," in the Rejoinder (Duplique) of Norway, [1951] I.C.J. Pleadings, vol. III, 438-492.
61. Ibid., at 461. [Emphasis added.]
62. Charles De Visscher, Problèmes d'interprétation judiciaire en Droit international public, at 176, no. 2 (1963). Author's translation.
63. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 206.
64. See in particular: D. H. N. Johnson, "Consolidation as a Root of Title in International Law," Cambridge Law Journal 215-225, at 222 (1955)
65. Jonathan Charney, "Maritime Jurisdiction and the Secession of States: The Case of Quebec," 25 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 343-427, at 369 (1992)
66. and O'Connell, supra note 35, at 426-427.
67. For an extensive study of this question, see Pharand, supra note 28, at 113-125.
68. Of particular relevance are the following: Francis Rigaldies, "Le statut des eaux de l'Archipel de l'Arctique canadien," 2 Espaces et Resources maritimes 45-105, at 92-102 (1987)
69. Daniel Vignes, "Le Passage du Nord-Ouest," 17 Thesaurus Acroasium 465-500, at 480-483 (Thessoloniki: Institute of Public Information and Law, 1991)
70. and Charney, supra note 48, at 366-371.
71. For a visual representation of the geography covered by those expeditions, see the two maps reproduced in Pharand, supra note 28, at 115, 156. The first map shows the routes followed by 11 expeditions in Search for a Northwest Passage from 1576 to 1847. The second shows most of the routes followed by 14 expeditions in Search for Franklin's Expeditions from 1847 to 1859.
72. For a thorough study of the Eastern Arctic Patrol and the role of the RCMP, see Gordon W. Smith, "An Historic and Legal Study of Sovereignty in the Canadian North and Related Problems of Maritime Law," part A, vol. II, unpublished.
73. Canada, House of Commons, Debates, Apr. 6, 1957, at 3185-3186.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
76. See in particular, W. E. Parry, "Parry's Voyage 1819-20" (1821), at 74,
77. and Sir John Ross, "Narrative of a Second Voyage 1829-33" (1835), at 116, 156.
78. For a summary of British expeditions from 1821 to 1845, see also "Chronological List of Explorations and Historical Events in Northern Canada 1821-45," 16 Polar Record, no. 100, 41-61 (Cambridge: Scott Polar Institute, 1972).
79. See in particular, the instructions to the following explorers: Sir John Ross, "A Voyage of Discovery" (1989)
80. W. E. Parry, "Parry's Voyage" 1819-20 (1821), at xix;
81. W. E. Parry, "Parry's Second Voyage" 1821-23 (1924), at xxi;
82. W. E. Parry, "Parry's Voyage" 1824-25 (1926), at xvii;
83. and Sir John Franklin in 1845, Arctic Blue Books, vol. I, Document no. 45216, para.1.
84. Gordon W. Smith, A Historical Survey of Maritime Exploration in the Canadian Arctic and Its Relevance with Subsequent and Present Sovereignty Issues typescript, 34 pp., at 26 (1970). The study carries the following note: "This paper has been prepared for publication in the Proceedings of the International Commission of Maritime History, meeting in conjunction with the Thirteenth Congress of the International Committee for Historical Sciences in Moscow, August 1970."
85. See photograph of plaque in J. E. Bernier, Master Mariner and Arctic Explorer, at 128 (Ottawa: LeDroit, 1939).
86. Ibid., at 344. [Emphasis added.]
87. For a study of the sector theory, see Pharand, supra note 28, at 1-87. See also the author's dissertation, La théorie des secteurs dans l'Arctique à l'égard du Droit international, Faculty of Law, University of Paris (1955).
88. Quoted by Gordon W. Smith, "Canada's Arctic Archipelago: 100 Years of Canadian Jurisdiction," 33 ARCTIC 1-19, at 11 (1980). The reference given by Smith at 11 is: R. G. 85, vol. O. S. Finnie to W. W. Cory (Mar. 31, 1926).
89. See Yolande Dorion-Robitaille, Captain J.E. Bernier's Contribution to Canadian Sovereignty in the Arctic, at 108 (Ottawa: Department of Indian & Northern Affairs, 1978).
90. See Mitchell Sharp, Canada, House of Commons, Debates, Apr. 17, 1970, at 6015.
91. See Standing Committee on External Affairs and National Defence, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, Apr. 29, 1970, no. 25, at 18. [Emphasis added.]
92. For an excellent study of the controversial question of the innocent passage of warships, see O'Connell, supra note 35, at 270-298.
93. See Statutes of Canada, chap. 47, 18-19 Eliz. II, 1969-70, sec. 3(1).
94. Ibid., sec. 3(2).
95. The U.S. protest note stated that "international law provides no basis for these proposed unilateral extensions of jurisdictions on the high seas, and the U.S.A. can neither accept nor acquiesce in the assertion of such jurisdiction." See text reproduced in Canada, House of Commons, Debates, Apr. 15, 1970, at 5923, as Appendix A. [Emphasis added.]
96. For the text of the letter transmitted by the Canadian ambassador at the United Nations the secretary general, see 22 External Affairs, at 130-131 (1970).
97. Letter dated Dec. 17, 1973, reproduced in 12 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 277, at 279 (1974). [Emphasis added.]
98. Standing Committee on External Affairs and National Defence, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, May 22, 1975, no. 24, at 6. [Emphasis added.]
99. Supra note 7, at 418. [Emphasis added.]
100. State Department File No. P86 0019-8641, quoted in U.S. Department of State, Limits the Seas, United States Responses to Excessive National Maritime Claims, no. 112, at 29 (Mar. 1992). [Emphasis added.]
101. British High Commission Note no. 90/86 of July 9, 1986, quoted in ibid., at 29-30. [Emphasis added.] The 12 members of the European Community in 1986 were: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.
102. Ibid., at 30.
103. Reproduced in 25 Canadian Yearbook of International Law at 406 (1987). [Emphasis original.]
104. See supra note 7, at 419-420.
105. Ibid., at 420.
106. Canada-U.S. Agreement on Arctic Cooperation, Jan. 11, 1988, C.T.S. 1988/ 29.
107. Ibid., art. 4.
108. For a comment on the Agreement, see François-Antoine Mathys, "Accord coopération dans l'Arctique entre le Canada et les Etats-Unis d'Amérique," 25 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 345-353 (1987).
109. For a similar conclusion, see in particular the following: Ted L. McDorman, "In the Wake of the Polar Sea," 10 Marine Policy 243-257, at 250 (1986)
110. and A. B. McKinnon, "Arctic Baselines: A Littore Usque Ad Litus," 66 Canadian Bar Review 790-817, at 800 (1987).
111. For a recent contrary opinion, see Francis Rigaldies, "Les lignes de base dans le droit de la mer contemporain," 35 Revue juridique Thémis, 1-82, at 80 (2001). Unfortunately, this opinion is based mainly on the misapprehension that the United States did not protest Canada's baselines in 1986. Id., at 78. Also, it the opinion of Leonard H. Legault, a former legal adviser of Canada's Foreign Affairs and well-known expert on the law of the sea, that "there are good historic grounds for Canada's claim." However, admits that "the Canadian position has not achieved general international recognition."
112. See "Climate Change and the Law of the Sea in the Canadian Arctic," 8 pp., at 3; paper delivered at a Conference on Climate Change held in Ottawa, ON (June 2001).
113. [1985] I.C.J. Rep., at para. 235.
114. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 129.
115. Ibid., at 131.
116. See Michael Reisman and Gayl S. Westerman, "Straight Baselines in International Law: A Call for Reconsideration," 82 Amer. Soc. Int'l Law Proc. 260-277 (1990), at 263 in particular, where Professor Reisman stated that "having established the straight baseline method as legitimate, it proceeded simply to validate what Norway had done."
117. Sir Humphrey Waldock, The International Court and the Law of the Sea, Cornelis van Vollenhoven Memorial Lecture, The Hague, TMC Asser Institute, 17 pp. (May, 22, 1979), at 10.
118. [Emphasis added.]
119. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 209. [Emphasis added.]
120. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 128-129. [Emphasis added.]
121. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 4, and LOS Convention, Art. 7.
122. David A. Colson, "The Lawof the Sea: Customary Norms and Convention Rules-Remarks," American Society of International Law Proceedings, at 90 (1987).
123. Ibid., at 88, a note reads: "Mr. Colson spoke in his personal capacity; the views expressed are his own and do not necessarily represent those of the Department of State or the U.S. Government."
124. Ibid., at 90. [emphasis added.]
125. Ibid.
126. Professor O'Connell lists some 18 coastal archipelagos to which the straight baselines have been applied and of doubtful validity under the Conventions. See supra note 35, at 212.
127. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 129. [Emphasis added.]
128. See corrected passage obtained by the I.L.C. from the Registry of the Court, I.L.C. Yearbook, vol. II, at 267 (New York: United Nations, 1961), where the part on "reasonable limits" had originally been omitted in the English translation of the authoritative French text.
129. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 129.
130. Ibid., at 139.
131. William Burke, "Remarks," supra note 92, at 82. [Emphasis added.]
132. Ibid., at 83. [Emphasis added.]
133. McKinnon, supra note 82, at 805.
134. Ibid.
135. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 132.
136. Ibid.
137. Ibid., at 133. [Emphasis added.]
138. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
139. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 215.
140. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 129. [Emphasis added.]
141. Ibid., at 142. [Emphasis added.]
142. Ibid.
143. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
144. Ibid.
145. Ibid., at 127. [Emphasis added.]
146. See in particular, W. G. Reinhard, " International Law: Implications of the Opening of the Northwest Passage," 74 Dickinson Law Review, 678, at 688 (1970)
147. J. W. Dellapenna, "Canadian Claims in Arctic Waters," 4 Land and Water Law Review, at 418 (1982)
148. Mark Killas, "The Legality of Canada's Claims to the Waters of Its Arctic Archipelago," 19 Ottawa Law Review 95-136, at 118 (1987)
149. and McKinnon, supra note 82, at 806.
150. U.S. Department of State, Limits of the Seas, no. 106, at 1 (Aug. 31, 1987).
151. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 133.
152. Ibid.
153. Ibid., [Emphasis added.] The criterion was incorporated textually in the 1958 Territorial Sea Convention and the 1982 LOS Convention, except that the adjective "certain" at the beginningwas replaced by the article "the." See Territorial Sea Convention, art. 4(2), and LOS Convention, art. 7(3).
154. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
155. Burke, supra note 100, at 83.
156. The author is indebted to the late John Cooper, consultant on maritime boundary delimitation, who made these calculations in 1985.
157. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 133.
158. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 4(4), and LOS Convention, art. 7(5).
159. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 216.
160. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 142.
161. Ibid.
162. Ibid.
163. See a government-sponsored study in three volumes by M. R. Freeman, ed., Report: Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Project, Can. Gov. Cat. no. R2-46 (1976).
164. M. R. Freeman, "Contemporary Inuit Exploitation of the Sea Ice Environment," paper presented at the Sikumiut Workshop, McGill University, Apr. 15, 1992, at 13.
165. See H.Waldock, "The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case," 28 British Yearbook of International Law 114, at 146 (London, England, 1951).
166. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 131.
167. Ibid.
168. See LOS Convention, art. 47.
169. P. B. Beazley, "Territorial Sea Baselines," 48 International Hydrographic Review, at 145 (1971).
170. Tullio Scovazzi et al., Atlas of the Straight Baselines, 2nd ed., 233 pp. (1989).
171. Reisman and Westerman, supra note 86, at 272.
172. Ibid., at 275. The Vienna Convention referred to is the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331.
173. Reisman and Westerman, supra note 86, at 275.
174. Commentary is reprinted in 34 I.L.M., at 1402-1404 (Sept. 1995).
175. Ibid., at 1403. [Emphasis added.]
176. J. Ashley Roach and Robert W. Smith, "Straight Baselines: The Need for a Universally Applied Norm," 31 Ocean Development and International Law 47-80 (2000).
177. Ibid., note 44, at 69.
178. Ibid.
179. The Grisbadarna case is reprinted in 4 American Journal of International Law 226-236 (1910).
180. See also the original French text of the decision in United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol. V, 155-162.
181. Ibid., at 230.
182. Ibid., at 231-232.
183. Ibid., at 232.
184. Ibid., at 233.
185. Ibid.
186. Ibid., at 233-234.
187. Charles De Visscher, Theory and Realities in Public International Law (1957), at 217. [Emphasis added.]
188. For discussion of the scope of application of this doctrine, see Johnson, supra note 48.
189. Grisbadarna case, supra note 145, at 234.
190. 1906 Statutes of Canada, 5 Edw. VII, c. 13.
191. P.C. 1146, July 19, 1926
192. Canada Gazette, July 31, 1926, at 382.
193. Northwest Territories Act, 1952 R.S.C., c. 33, sec. 2(1).
194. Regina v. Tootalik E4-321, (1969) 71W.W.R. 435, at 443
195. and B.P. Exploration Co. (Lybia) v. Hunt, (1981) 1 W.W.R. 209, at 242-245.
196. Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, supra note 67, preamble.
197. S.O.R./72-253, Canada Gazette, part II, vol. 106, no. 14, at 1033 (July 26, 1972).
198. S.O.R./72-426, Canada Gazette, part II, vol. 106, no. 14, at 1847 (Oct. 25, 1972).
199. S.O.R./72-203, Canada Gazette, part II, vol. 106, no. 14, at 1468 (Aug. 23, 1972).
200. See Shipping Safety Control Zones Order, Consolidated Regulations of Canada, Schedule I (1978).
201. De Visscher, supra note 152 at 200. [Emphasis added.]
202. Ibid.
203. Ibid., at 201. [Emphasis added.]
204. Grisbadarna case, supra note 145, at 234.
205. [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 138. [Emphasis added.]
206. Ibid.
207. See Bernier, supra note 59, at 312-313 and 319.
208. See above "Appraisal of Canada's Claim to Historic Waters," part A.I.2.
209. Canada Treaty Series, no. 65 (1976), art. 5(d).
210. Ibid., art. 2.
211. International Union for the Conservation of Nature, World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development, c. 19, para. 12 (1980).
212. Beaufort Sea - Mackenzie Delta Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 3B, at 2.92 (1982).
213. Grisbadarna case, supra note 145, at 234.
214. Reproduced in the decision of the Court, [1951] I.C.J. Rep., at 125. [Emphasis added.]
215. Ibid., at 136. [Emphasis added.]
216. Ibid., at 142.
217. A. Nelson Smith, "Biological Consequences of Oil Spills in ArcticWaters," in Louis Rey, ed., The Arctic Ocean 275-293, at 285 (1982).
218. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, art. 27.
219. General Comment no. 23, 50th Sess., at 7, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21 Rev.1/ Add.5 (1994).
220. In the words of Master Mariner and Ice Pilot Len Forrest, when describing the westerly crossing of the Bremen in the Victoria Strait area, escorted by the icebreaker Terry Fox in August 2003, "from Resolute to Queen Maud Gulf, the ice is invariably a mix of thick first year ice (120 cm) and old ice with ridges of 3-4 metres with keels down to 20 m, and floes up to 10 km in width." Len Forrest, "Aboard MS Bremen through the Northwest Passage, 2003," Starshell, vol. VII, no. 27, 12-17, at 14 (2004).
221. In 1989, when the author had the privilege of making an easterly crossing aboard the icebreaker Sir John Franklin, the ice conditions wereworse than those inVictoria Strait. The note in his diary, on Oct. 4, 1989, reads: "The entrance of Larsen Sound where we are isworse than inVictoria Strait and the Captain (D.S. McGarvie) was telling me some of the floes we are now dealing with are about 15 feet thick." See Donat Pharand, Arctic Journey 1989, 54 pp., Personal Archives at 43.
222. The main sources used in the preparation of this list are: "The Northwest Passage - Summary of Complete Transits," Fleet News no. 11, Canadian Coast Guard (1985)
223. and Transits of the Northwest Passage, Canadian Coast Guard (2006). The author would appreciate being informed of any error or omission in the list.
224. LOS Convention, art. 34-35.
225. [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 4
226. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 4(4).
227. LOS Convention, art. 36.
228. See R. R. Baxter, The Law of International Waterways, at 4-5 and note 12 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964)
229. and Charles DeVisscher, Problèmes de confins en droit international public, at 141 (Paris: Pédone, 1969).
230. E. Brüel, International Straits, vol. I, at 42-43 (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1947).
231. In more recent times, the most complete study is by Hugo Caminos, "The Legal Regime of Straits in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea" Recueil des Cours, vol. 205, 13-245 (1987-v).
232. Ibid. [Emphasis added.]
233. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 29.
234. [1949] I.CJ. Pleadings, vol. II, at 242.
235. Ibid., at 354, trans. by the author.
236. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 28.
237. Ibid.
238. The opinion of Professor Pierre Calvé, emeritus professor and former dean of the Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, interpreting the French text, reads: "It would seem at first that the judgment gives priority to the purely geographical factor, that is the geographical situation of the strait between two parts of the high seas, rather than the functional criterion (its use for international navigation), since the judgment states that the decisive criterion is its geographical situation. However, the fact that the authors took care to specify what they meant by this geographical criterion in explaining it by two sub-criteria linked by the coordinative conjunction 'as well as' leaves no doubt as to their intention to consider those two sub-criteria as complementary and equivalent in importance." Personal communication, 16 Sept. 2005.
239. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 28.
240. G. C. Fitzmaurice, "The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice: General Principles and Substantive Law," 27 British Yearbook of International Law 1, at 28 (1950). [Emphasis added.]
241. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 29.
242. [1951] I.C.J. Pleadings, vol. II, at 555. [Emphasis added.]
243. Baxter, supra note 190, at 3. [Emphasis added.]
244. Ibid., at 9.
245. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 314. [Emphasis added.]
246. De Visscher, supra note 190, at 142.
247. McDorman, supra note 82, at 251.
248. Tommy T.B. Koh, "The Territorial Sea, Contiguous Zone, Straits and Archipelagoes Under the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea," 29 Malaya Law Review 163, at 178 (1987).
249. N. C. Howson, "Breaking the Ice: The Canadian-American Dispute over the Arctic's Northwest Passage," 26 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 337, at 369-370 (1988).
250. S. N. Nandan and D. H. Anderson, "Straits Used for International Navigation: A Commentary on Part III of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982," 60 British Yearbook of Interntional Law 159, at 168 (1989).
251. Donald R. Rothwell, "The Canadian-U.S. Northwest Passage Dispute: A Reassessment," 26 Cornell International and Law Journal 331, at 357 (1993).
252. De Visscher, supra note 190, at 142. [Emphasis added.] Trans. by author.
253. See B. A. Harlow, Assistant Judge Advocate General, "UNCLOS III and Conflict Management in Straits," 15 Ocean Development and International Law 197, at 198 (1985).
254. Richard J. Grunawalt, "United States Policy on International Straits," 18 Ocean Development and International Law 445, at 456 (1987). Considering the title of the article and the statement quoted, it is difficult to attach weight to the disclaimer of the author, at 445, that his views "do not reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Defense or the government."
255. U.S. Department of State, Geographic Note, no. 2, Jan. 31, 1986, at 8.
256. Limits in the Seas, no. 112, supra note 74, at 73.
257. LOS Convention, art. 34 (1).
258. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 29.
259. See The Ottawa Citizen, Dec. 20, 2005, at A3.
260. The Globe and Mail, Update, and Canadian Press, Dec. 22, 2005, available at www.globeandmail.com/skill.servlet/story/RTGAM.20051222weltories1222/ BNPrin...23/12/2005.
261. Donat Pharand, "The Northwest Passage in International Law," 17 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 99-133, at 109 (1979).
262. Exchange of Notes (May 5, 1955) between Canada and the United States governing the establishment of a Distant Early Warning System in Canadian Territory, 241 U.N.T.S. 179.
263. Supra note 80.
264. Ibid., art. 4. [Emphasis added.]
265. Transcript of Joint Press Conference, no. MINP-511, at 3 (Jan. 11, 1988).
266. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, supra note 138, art. 32.
267. [1974] I.C.J. Rep., at 253.
268. See infra note 262.
269. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 14(6), and LOS Convention, art. 20.
270. [1949] I.C.J. Rep., at 28.
271. For a full discussion of this question, see O'Connell, supra note 35, at 274-298.
272. For a more complete analysis of this question, see Pharand, supra note 28, at 225-228.
273. Territorial Sea Convention, art. 5(2).
274. [1984] I.C.J. Rep. 246, at 297, para. 107.
275. 499 U.N.T.S. 311.
276. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 385-386.
277. LOS Convention, art. 8(2).
278. See generally Eastern Greenland case, [1933] P.C.I.J. Rep., Ser. A/B, no. 53.
279. LOS Convention, art. 38(2).
280. See LOS Convention, art. 19(2).
281. For a review of the history of transit passage provisions in the LOS Convention, see D. Pharand, "International Straits," 7 Thesaurus Acroasium 65-100, at 80-86 (1977).
282. LOS Convention, art. 38(1).
283. LOS Convention, art. 20.
284. LOS Convention, art. 39(1)(c).
285. O'Connell, supra note 35, at 333.
286. J. N. Moore, "The Regime of Straits and the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea," 74 American Journal of International Law 77-121, at 89 (1980).
287. This is confirmed by Harlow, supra note 213, at 200.
288. LOS Convention, art. 43(5).
289. See supra notes 67-69.
290. D. M. McRae and D. J. Goundrey, "Environmental Jurisdiction in Arctic Waters: The Extent of Article 234," 16 University of British Columbia Law Review 197-228, at 221 (1982)
291. and D. M. McRae, "Arctic Waters and Canadian Sovereignty," 38 International Journal 476-492, at 480 1983).
292. Alan E. Boyle, "Marine Pollution Under the Law of the Sea Convention," 79 American Journal of International Law 347-372 at 361, 362 (1985).
293. Leonard Legault, "Protecting the Marine Environment," in J. Holmes and J. Kirton, eds., Canada and the New Internationalism (Toronto: Center for International Studies, University of Toronto, 1988) 99-109, at 107. [Emphasis added.]
294. Bernard Oxman, in "Legal Regimes of the Arctic," 40 American Society of International Law Proceedings 315-334, at 334 (1988). [Emphasis added.]
295. See McRae and Goundrey, supra note 250, at 227
296. and Kurt M. Shusterich, "International Jurisdictional Issues in the Arctic Ocean," 14 Ocean Development and International Law 235-272, 252 (1984).
297. McRae and Goundrey, supra note 250, at 228.
298. Statement by Prime Minister Trudeau, Canada, House of Commons, Debates, at 39 (Oct. 24, 1969).
299. Supra note 7.
300. Supra note 67.
301. Supra notes 162-163.
302. Revised Statutes of Canada, 1985, c. S-9.
303. Statutes of Canada, 1992, c. 31.
304. SeeTransport Canada, Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations, Arctic Ice Regime Shipping Standards, TP 12259E (June 1997).
305. Ibid., at 16.
306. Ibid.
307. Ibid., at 17.
308. Ibid.
309. See Final Report of the Environmental Panel, Beaufort Sea Hydrocarbon Production and Transportation, at 97 (July 1984).
310. Ibid.
311. S.O.R./2004-144, Canada Gazette, part II, vol. 138, no. 11 (June 2, 2004).
312. Ibid., sec. 222(2).
313. Supra note 7.
314. Canada, Department of National Defence, Challenge and Commitment: A Defence Policy for Canada, at 51 (Ottawa, ON: Department of National Defense, 1987).
315. Ibid., at 53.
316. Supra note 80.
317. Ibid., art. 4. [emphasis added.]
318. This was suggested by the author in "The Legal Regime of the Arctic: Some Outstanding Issues," 34 International Journal 742-799, at 792-793 (1979)
319. and Pharand, supra note 28, at 239-240.
320. See Exchange of Notes and Memorandum on the Modernization of the North American Air Defence System, Quebec City (Mar. 18, 1985).
321. See in particular the following: Pharand, supra note 28, at 240-243
322. Canadian Directorate of Defense, Arctic Capabilities Study, 26 pp. (June 200)
323. Pierre Leblanc, Canada and the North Insufficient Security Resources, 7 pp. (Apr., 2001)
324. Suzanne Lalonde, "Increased Traffic Through Canadian Arctic Waters: Canada State of Readiness," 38 Revue Juridique Thémis 49-124, at 103-124, Université de Montréal (2004)
325. Michael Byers and Suzanne Lalonde, "Talking Points," 3 pp. distributed at an Arctic Ocean Meeting of Experts, Victoria, BC, Feb. 23-25, 2006.
326. Institute of the North, "Top of the World Telegraph," vol. I, no 29 (Oct. 5, 2005).
327. See Web site for the Institute of the North at www.institutenorth.org.
328. Donat Pharand, "Canada's Sovereignty over the Newly Enclosed Arctic Waters," 25 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 325-343, at 334 (1987).
329. See "Strapping guns on coast guard ships quick solution, admiral says," by Staff Reporter Chris Lambie, The (Halifax) Chronicle Herald, Mar. 23, 2006.
330. See supra note 5.
331. See Government of Canada Response to the Report of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade "Canada and the Circumpolar World: Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the Twenty-First Century," at 29, Ottawa: Government of Canada (Apr. 29, 1998).
332. LOS Convention, art. 122.
333. LOS Convention, art. 198.
334. LOS Convention, art. 199.
335. LOS Convention, art. 200.
336. LOS Convention, art. 201.
337. Canada, Department of External Affairs, Communiqué no. 98 (Aug. 26, 1983) and C.T.S. 1983/19.
338. Exchange of Notes Concerning a Joint Marine Pollution Contingency Plan (June 18, 1974), C.T.S. 1974/22
339. and Exchange of Notes Constituting an Agreement Concerning the Establishment of a Joint Marine Contingency Plan (July 28, and Aug. 30, 1977), C.T.S. 1977/25.
340. Claes Lykke Ragner, "The Northern Sea Route - Commercial Potential, Economic Significance, and Infrastructure Requirements," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 541-580, at 542 (2000).
341. Ibid.
342. See "Russia Might Open Its Waters to Foreign Vessels," at www.barentsobserver.com, reproduced by Institute of the North, "Top of the World Telegraph," vol. I, no 33 (Nov. 2, 2005), at www.institutenorth.org/PDF/Telegraph%201-33.pdf.
343. See Web site of the IASC at www.lasc.es.
344. See Web site of the Northern Forum at www.northernforum.org.
345. See infra note 299.
346. Institute of the North, "The Circumpolar Infrastructure Task Force Project," available at www.institutenorth.org.
347. Lawson Brigham and Ben Ellis, eds., Arctic Marine Transport Workshop (2004), available at www.arctic.gov/files/amtw_book.pdf.
348. The text of the founding Declaration, is available on the Arctic Council Web site, at www.arctic-council.org. On some of the developments of the Council, see Evan T. Bloom, "Establishment Council," 93 American Journal of International Law., 712-722 (1999).
349. Available at the Arctic Council Web site, supra note 299.
350. See generally, the Arctic Council Web site, supra note 299.
351. See Brigham and Ellis, supra note 298, Appendix I.
352. Ibid.
353. Douglas M. Johnston, "The Northwest Passage Revisited," 33 Ocean Development and International Law 145-164 (2000).
354. Erick Franckx, Maritime Claims in the Arctic, Canadian and Russian Perspectives, 330 pp., at 308 (Dordrecht: Martimus Nyhoff, 1993).
355. For an excellent study, see Lawson W. Brigham, "The Emerging International Polar Navigation Code: Bi-polar Relevance?" inDavorVidas, ed., Protecting the Polar Marine Environment, 267 pp., at 244-262 (Cambridge: Scott Polar Institute, 2000)
356. and IMO, "Guidelines for Ship Operating in Arctic Ice-CoveredWaters," available at www.imo.org/includes/blastData.asp/doc_id=2734/1056- MEPC-circ399pdf.
357. See supra notes 160-163.
358. On this opinion, see in particular David D. Caron, "Toward an Arctic Environmental Regime," 24 Ocean Development and International Law 377-392 (1993)
359. and Esther Nagtegall-Cunningham, Canada's Third Ocean: Ignore or Embrace? thesis for the degree of Master of Marine Management, at Dalhousie University, 131 pp. (Aug. 2004). In this remarkable thesis, the author addresses the problems of future foreign shipping in the Northwest Passage and recommends the regime-building approach for their solution. A similar cooperative approach has been suggested with respect to the Northern Sea Route by a number of authors.
360. See the following INSROP Working Paper: W. Ostreng, F. Griffiths, R. Vartanov, A. Roginko, and V. Kobossov, National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic - The Case of the Northern Sea Route, 281 pp. (no. 83, 1997, IV.2.1).
361. Thomas R. Berger, "The North as Frontier and Homeland," in the True North Strong and Free Inquiry Society, The Arctic Choices for Peace and Security, 37-43, at 41 (Vancouver: Gordon Sordes Book Publishers Ltd., 1989).