Ecological linkages between headwaters and downstream ecosystems: Transport of organic matter, invertebrates, and wood down headwater channels

Journal of the American Water Resources Association

Volumn 43, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 72-85

  Wipfli, Mark S ^a   Richardson, John S ^b   Naiman, Robert J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA FAIRBANKS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

Ecosystem services; Headwater streams; Invertebrates; Organic matter; Subsidy; Transport; Wood

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; BIOFILMS; DECOMPOSITION; WATER RESOURCES;

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES; HEADWATER STREAMS; INVERTEBRATES; ORGANIC MATTER;

ECOLOGY;

BIODIVERSITY; BIOFILMS; DECOMPOSITION; ECOLOGY; WATER RESOURCES;

AQUATIC COMMUNITY; BIOACTIVITY; BIOFILM; CONNECTIVITY; DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER; ECOLOGICAL MODELING; ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; ENERGY FLUX; HEADWATER; INVERTEBRATE; LAND USE; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIVER WATER; SURFACE WATER;

INVERTEBRATA;

EID: 33847228773     PISSN: 1093474X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00007.x     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Abbe, T.B. and D.R. Montgomery, 1996. Large Woody Debris Jams, Channel Hydraulics, and Habitat Formation in Large Rivers. Regulated Rivers 12:201-222.
2. Adams, S.M., 1998. Ecological Role of Lipids in the Health and Success of Fish Populations. In: Lipids in Freshwater Ecosystems, M.T. Arts and B.C. Wainman (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 132-160.
3. Agee, J.K., 1988. Successional Dynamics of Forest Riparian Zones. In: Streamside Management: Riparian Wildlife and Forestry Interactions. Contribution No. 59, K.J. Raedeke (Editor). Institute of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, pp. 31-43.
4. Allan, J.D., M.S. Wipfli, J.P. Caouette, A. Prussian, and J. Rodgers, 2003. Influence of Streamside Vegetation on Terrestrial Invertebrate Inputs to Salmonid Food Webs. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60:309-320.
5. Anderson, N.H. and J.R. Sedell, 1979. Detritus Processing by Macroinvertebrates in Stream Ecosystems. Annual Review of Entomology 24:351-377.
6. Baker, M.A., H.M. Valett, and C.N. Dahm, 2000. Organic Carbon Supply and Metabolism in a Shallow Groundwater Ecosystem. Ecology 81:3133-3148.
7. Baxter, C.V., K.D. Fausch, M. Murakami, and P.L. Chapman, 2004. Non-native Stream Fish Invasion Restructures Stream and Riparian Forest Food Webs by Interrupting Reciprocal Prey Subsidies. Ecology 85:2656-2663.
8. Baxter, C.V., K.D. Fausch, and W.C. Saunders, 2005. Tangled Webs: Reciprocal Flows of Invertebrate Prey Link Streams and Riparian Zones. Freshwater Biology 51:201-220.
9. Benda, L.E., D.L. Miller, T. Dunne, G.H. Reeves, and J.K. Agee, 1998. Dynamic Landscape Systems. In: River Ecology and Management, R.J. Naiman and R.E. Bilby (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 261-288.
10. Benda, L.E., M.A. Hassan, M. Church, and C.L. May, 2005. Geomorphology of Steepland Headwaters: The Transition From Hillslopes to Channels. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41:835-851.
11. Benfield, E.F., 1997. Comparison of Litterfall Input to Streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 16:104-108.
12. Benfield, E.F., J.R. Webster, J.L. Tank, and J.J. Hutchens, 2001. Long-Term Patterns in Leaf Breakdown in Streams in Response to Watershed Logging. International Review of Hydrobiology 86:467-474.
13. Bilby, R.E. and P.A. Bisson, 1998. Function and Distribution of Large Woody Debris. In: River Ecology and Management, R.J. Naiman and R.E. Bilby (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 324-346.
14. Bilby, R.E. and J.W. Ward, 1989. Changes in Characteristics and Function of Woody Debris With Increasing Size of Streams in Western Washington. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 118:368-378.
15. Bilby, R.E. and J.W. Ward, 1991. Characteristics and Function of Large Woody Debris in Streams Draining Old-Growth, Clear-cut, and Second-Growth Forests in Southwestern Washington. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 48:2499-2508.
16. Bilby, R.E. and L.J. Wasserman, 1989. Forest Practices and Riparian Management in Washington State: Data Based Regulation Development. In: Practical Approaches to Riparian Resource Management, R.E. Gresswell, B.A. Barton, and J.L. Kershner (Editors). U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Billings, Montana, pp. 87-94.
17. Bisson, P.A. and R.E. Bilby, 1998. Organic Matter and Trophic Dynamics. In: River Ecology and Management, R.J. Naiman and R.E. Bilby (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 373-398.
18. Bisson, P.A., R.E. Bilby, M.D. Bryant, C.A. Dolloff, G.B. Grette, R.A. House, M.L. Murphy, K.V. Koski and J.R. Sedell, 1987. Large Woody Debris in the Pacific Northwest: Past, Present, and Future. In: Proceedings, Streamside Management: Forestry and Fishery Interactions, E.O. Salo and T.W. Cundy (Editors). University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, pp. 143-190.
19. Blinn, C.R. and M.A. Kilgore, 2001. Riparian Management Practices: A Summary of State Guidelines. Journal of Forestry 99:11-17.
20. Bormann, F.H. and G.E. Likens, 1979. Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York.
21. Boss, S.M. and J.S. Richardson, 2002. The Effects of Food and Cover on the Growth, Survival and Movement of Cutthroat Trout in Coastal Streams. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59:1044-1053.
22. 2-Fixing Red Alder. Ecosystems 6:773-785.
23. Cummins, K.W., M.A. Wilzbach, D.M. Gates, J.B. Perry, and W.B. Talliafero, 1989. Shredders and Riparian Vegetation. BioScience 39:24-30.
24. Ehrman, T.P. and G.A. Lamberti, 1992. Hydraulic and Particulate Matter Retention in a 3rd-Order Indiana Stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 11:341-349.
25. Elosegi, A. and L.B. Johnson, 2003. Wood in Streams and Rivers in Developed Landscapes. American Fisheries Society Symposium 37:337-353.
26. Fetherston, K.L., R.J. Naiman, and R.E. Bilby, 1995. Large Woody Debris, Physical Processes and Riparian Forest Development in Montane River Networks of the Pacific Northwest. Geomorphology 13:133-144.
27. Gerking, S.D., 1994. Feeding Ecology of Fish. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
28. Gomi, T., R.C. Sidle, and J.S. Richardson, 2002. Headwater and Channel Network - Understanding Processes and Downstream Linkages of Headwater Systems. BioScience 52:905-916.
29. Gregory, S.V., K.L. Boyer, and A.M. Gurnell (Editors), 2003. The Ecology and Management of Wood in World Rivers. American Fisheries Society Symposium 37, Bethesda, Maryland.
30. Grette, G.B., 1985. The Abundance and Role of Large Organic Debris in Juvenile Salmonid Habitat in Streams in Second Growth and Unlogged Forests. M.S. Thesis, School of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
31. Haigh, M.J., R.B. Singh, and J. Krecek, 1998. Headwater Control: Matters Arising. In: Headwaters: Water Resources and Soil Conservation, M.J. Haigh, J. Krecek, G.S. Rajwar, and M.P. Kilmartin (Editors). A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 3-24.
32. Harmon, M.E., J.F. Franklin, F.J. Swanson, P. Sollins, S.V. Gregory, J.D. Lattin, N.H. Anderson, S.P. Cline, N.G. Aumen, J.R. Sedell, G.W. Lienkaemper, K. Cromack and K.W. Cummins, 1986. Ecology of Coarse Woody Debris in Temperate Ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research 15:133-302.
33. Harrington, C.A., J.C. Zasada, and E.A. Allen, 1994. Biology of Red Alder (Alnus rubra Bong.). In: The Biology and Management of Red Alder, D.E. Hibbs, D.S. DeBell, and R.F. Tarrant (Editors). Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon, pp. 3-22.
34. Heard, S.B., G.A. Schultz, C.B. Ogden, and T.C. Griesel, 1999. Mechanical Abrasion and Organic Matter Processing in an Iowa Stream. Hydrobiologia 400:179-186.
35. Heintz, R.A., B.D. Nelson, J.P. Hudson, M. Larsen, L. Holland, and M.S. Wipfli, 2004. Marine Subsidies in Freshwater: Effects of Salmon Carcasses on the Lipid Class and Fatty Acid Composition of Juvenile Coho Salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133:559-567.
36. Hoover, T., J.S. Richardson, and N. Yonemitsu, 2006. Flow-Substrate Interactions Create and Mediate Leaf Litter Resource Patches in Streams. Freshwater Biology 51:435-447.
37. Hunt, R.L., 1975. Food Relations and Behavior of Salmonid Fishes. Use of Terrestrial Invertebrates as Food by Salmonids. In: Coupling of Land and Water Systems, Vol. 10, A.D. Hassler (Editor). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 137-151.
38. Hynes, H.B.N., 1970. The Ecology of Running Waters. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario, 555 pp.
39. Hynes, H.B.N., 1975. The Stream and Its Valley. Verhandlungen der Internationalen Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 19:1-15.
40. Kawaguchi, Y. and S. Nakano, 2001. Contribution of Terrestrial Invertebrates to the Annual Resource Budget for Salmonids in Forest and Grassland Reaches of a Headwater Stream. Freshwater Biology 46:303-316.
41. Kiffney, P.M., J.S. Richardson, and M.C. Feller, 2000. Fluvial and Epilithic Organic Matter Dynamics in Headwater Streams of Southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Archiv für Hydrobiologia 149:109-129.
42. Kiffney, P.M., C.M. Greene, J.E. Hall, and J.R. Davies, 2006. Tributary Streams Create Spatial Discontinuities in Habitat, Biological Productivity, and Diversity in Mainstem Rivers. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63:2518-2530.
43. Latterell, J.J., 2005. The Natural History and Dynamics of Large Wood in the Queets River, Washington. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
44. Latterell, J.J., J.S. Bechtold, R.J. Naiman, T.C. O'Keefe, and R. Van Pelt, 2006. Dynamic Patch Mosaics and Channel Movement in an Unconfined River Valley of the Olympic Mountains. Freshwater Biology 51:523-544.
45. Leopold, L.B., M.G. Wolman, and J.P. Miller, 1964. Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, California.
46. Lisle, T.E., 1986. Stabilization of a Gravel Channel by Large Streamside Obstructions and Bedrock Bends, Jacoby Creek, Northwestern California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 97:999-1011.
47. Malmqvist, B. and R.S. Wotton, 2002. Do Tributary Streams Contribute Significantly to the Transport of Faecal Pellets in Large Rivers? Aquatic Science 64:156-162.
48. Maser, C. and J.R. Sedell, 1994. From the Forest to the Sea: The Ecology of Wood in Streams, Rivers, Estuaries and Oceans. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.
49. Maser, C., R.F. Tarrant, J.M. Trappe, and J.F. Franklin (Editors), 1988. From the Forest to the Sea: A Story of Fallen Trees. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-229. Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon.
50. Mason, C.F. and S.M. Macdonald, 1982. The Input of Terrestrial Invertebrates From Tree Canopies to a Stream. Freshwater Biology 12:305-311.
51. May, C.L. and R.E. Gresswell, 2003. Large Wood Recruitment and Redistribution in Headwater Streams in the Southern Oregon Coast Range, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33:1352-1362.
52. May, C.W., E.B. Welch, R.R. Horner, J.R. Karr, and B.W. Mar, 1997. Quality Indices for Urbanization Effects on Puget Sound Lowland Streams. University of Washington, Civil Engineering Dept., Water Resources Series, Tech Report 154, Seattle, Washington.
53. McArthur, M.D. and J.S. Richardson, 2002. Microbial Utilization of Dissolved Organic Carbon Leached From Riparian Litterfall. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59:1668-1676.
54. Meleason, M.A., S.V. Gregory, and J.P. Bolte, 2003. Implications of Riparian Management Strategies on Wood in Streams of the Pacific Northwest. Ecological Applications 13:1212-1221.
55. Meyer, J.L. and J.B. Wallace, 2001. Lost Linkages and Lotic Ecology: Rediscovering Small Streams. In: Ecology: Achievement and Challenge, M.C. Press, N.J. Huntly, and S. Levin (Editors). Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts, pp. 295-317.
56. Meyer, J.L., J.B. Wallace, and S.L. Eggert, 1998. Leaf Litter as a Source of Dissolved Organic Carbon in Streams. Ecosystems 1:240-249.
57. Meyer, J.L., D.L. Strayer, J.B. Wallace, S.L. Eggert, and G.S. Helfman, 2007. The Contribution of Headwater Streams to Biodiversity in River Networks. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 43, DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00008.x
58. Moore, R.D. and J.S. Richardson, 2003. Progress Towards Understanding the Structure, Function, and Ecological Significance of Small Stream Channels and Their Riparian Zones. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33:1349-1351.
59. Naiman, R.J., 1982. Characteristics of Sediment and Organic Carbon Export From Pristine Boreal Forest Watersheds. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 39:1699-1718.
60. Naiman, R.J., 1983a. The Annual Pattern and Spatial Distribution of Aquatic Oxygen Metabolism in Boreal Forest Watersheds. Ecological Monographs 53:73-94.
61. Naiman, R.J., 1983b. The Influence of Stream Size on the Food Quality of Seston. Canadian Journal of Zoology 61:1195-2010.
62. Naiman, R.J. and H. Décamps, 1997. The Ecology of Interfaces: Riparian Zones. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28:621-658.
63. Naiman, R.J. and J.J. Latterell, 2005. Principles for Linking Fish Habitat to Fisheries Management and Conservation. Journal of Fish Biology 67:166-185.
64. Naiman, R.J. and J.R. Sedell, 1979. Characterization of Particulate Organic Matter Transported by Some Cascade Mountain Streams. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 36:17-31.
65. Naiman, R.J., J.M. Melillo, M.A. Lock, T.E. Ford, and S.R. Reice, 1987. Longitudinal Patterns of Ecosystem Processes and Community Structure in a Subarctic River Continuum. Ecology 68:1139-1156.
66. Naiman, R.J., E.V. Balian, K.K. Bartz, R.E. Bilby, and J.J. Latterell, 2002. Dead Wood Dynamics in Stream Ecosystems. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. General Technical Report GTR-PSW-181, W.F. Laudenslayer Jr., P.J. Shea, B. Valentine, C.P. Weatherspoon, and T.E. Lisle (Editors). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, California, pp. 23-48.
67. Naiman, R.J., H. Décamps, and M.E. McClain, 2005. Riparia: Ecology, Conservation and Management of Streamside Communities. Elsevier/Academic Press, San Diego, California.
68. Nakano, S. and M. Murakami, 2001. Reciprocal Subsidies: Dynamic Interdependence Between Terrestrial and Aquatic Food Webs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:166-170.
69. Nakano, S., Y. Kawaguchi, Y. Taniguchi, H. Miyasaka, Y. Shibata, H. Urabe, and N. Kuhara, 1999. Selective Foraging on Terrestrial Invertebrates by Rainbow Trout in a Forested Headwater Stream in Northern Japan. Ecological Research 14:351-360.
70. Nanson, G.C., M. Barbetti, and G. Taylor, 1995. River Stabilization due to Changing Climate and Vegetation During the Late Quaternary in Western Tasmania, Australia. Geomorphology 13:145-158.
71. Negishi, J.N. and J.S. Richardson, 2003. Responses of Organic Matter and Macroinvertebrates to Placements of Boulder Clusters in a Small Stream of Southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60:247-258.
72. Nielsen, J.L., 1992. Microhabitat-Specific Foraging Behavior, Diet, and Growth of Juvenile Coho Salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 121:617-634.
73. Orlikowska, E.H., R.L. Deal, P.H. Hennon, and M.S. Wipfli, 2004. Role of Red Alder in Riparian Forest Structure Along Headwater Streams in Southeastern Alaska. Northwest Science 78:111-123.
74. Petersen, R.C., 1986. In situ Particle Generation in a Southern Swedish Stream. Limnology and Oceanography 31:432-437.
75. Piccolo, J.J. and M.S. Wipfli, 2002. Does Red Alder (Alnus rubra) in Upland Riparian Forests Elevate Macroinvertebrate and Detritus Export From Headwater Streams to Downstream Habitats in Southeastern Alaska? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59:503-513.
76. Reeves, G.H., K.M. Burnett, and E.V. McGarry, 2003. Sources of Large Wood in the Main Stem of a Fourth-Order Watershed in Coastal Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33:1363-1370.
77. Richardson, J.S., 1984. Effects of Seston Quality on the Growth of a Lake-Outlet Filter Feeder. Oikos 43:386-390.
78. Richardson, J.S., 1991. Seasonal Food Limitation of Detritivores in a Montane Stream: An Experimental Test. Ecology 72:873-887.
79. Richardson, J.S., 1992. Coarse Particulate Detritus Dynamics in Small, Montane Streams of Southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 49:337-346.
80. Richardson, J.S., C.R. Shaughnessy, and P.G. Harrison, 2004. Litter Breakdown and Invertebrate Association With Three Types of Leaves in a Temperate Rainforest Stream. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 159:309-325.
81. Richardson, J.S., R.E. Bilby, and C.A. Bondar, 2005a. Organic Matter Dynamics in Small Streams of the Pacific Northwest. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41:921-934.
82. Richardson, J.S., R.J. Naiman, F.J. Swanson, and D.E. Hibbs, 2005b. Riparian Communities Associated With Pacific Northwest Headwater Streams: Assemblages, Processes, and Uniqueness. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41:935-947.
83. Robison, E.G. and R.L. Beschta, 1990. Characteristics of Coarse Woody Debris for Several Coastal Streams of Southwest Alaska, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47:1684-1693.
84. Romero, N., R.E. Gresswell, and J.L. Li, 2005. Changing Patterns in Coastal Cutthroat Trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki) Diet and Prey in a Gradient of Deciduous Canopies. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62:1797-1807.
85. Speaker, R.W., K.J. Luchessa, J.F. Franklin, and S.V. Gregory, 1988. The Use of Plastic Strips to Measure Leaf Retention by Riparian Vegetation in a Coastal Oregon Stream. American Midland Naturalist 120:22-31.
86. Suberkropp, K.F., 1998. Microorganisms and Organic Matter Processing. In: River Ecology and Management, R.J. Naiman and R.E. Bilby (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 120-143.
87. Swanson, F.J. and G.W. Lienkaemper, 1978. Physical Consequences of Large Organic Debris in Pacific Northwest Streams. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-69. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon.
88. Swanson, F.J., S.V. Gregory, J.R. Sedell, and A.G. Campbell, 1982. Land-Water Interactions: The Riparian Zone. In: Analysis of Coniferous Forest Ecosystems in the Western United States, R.L. Edmonds (Editor). Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, pp. 267-291.
89. Triska, F.J., J.R. Sedell, and S.V. Gregory, 1982. Coniferous Forest Streams. In: Analysis of Coniferous Forest Ecosystems in the Western United States, R.L. Edmonds (Editor), Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, pp. 292-332.
90. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, 1997. Tongass Land Management Plan Revision: Final Environmental Impact Statement, Appendix, Vol. 1. USDA For. Serv. R10-MB-388e.
91. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, 1999. Record of Decision. Tongass National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan. USDA For. Serv. FS-639.
92. Valett, H.M., C.L. Crenshaw, and P.F. Wagner, 2002. Stream Nutrient Uptake, Forest Succession, and Biogeochemical Theory. Ecology 83:2888-2901.
93. Wallace, J.B., M.R. Whiles, S. Eggert, T.F. Cuffney, G.H. Lugthart, and K. Chung, 1995. Long-Term Dynamics of Coarse Particulate Organic Matter in Three Appalachian Mountain Streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 14:217-232.
94. Wallace, J.B., S.L. Eggert, J.L. Meyer, and J.R. Webster, 1999. Effects of Resource Limitation on a Detrital-Based Ecosystem. Ecological Monographs 69:409-442.
95. Webster, J.R. and E.F. Benfield, 1986. Vascular Plant Breakdown in Fresh-Water Ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17:567-594.
96. Webster, J.R., E.F. Benfield, T.P. Ehrman, M.A. Schaeffer, J.L. Tank, J.J. Hutchens, and D.J. D'Angelo, 1999. What Happens to Allochthonous Material That Falls Into Streams. A Synthesis of New and Published Information From Coweeta. Freshwater Biology 41:687-705.
97. Wipfli, M.S., 1997. Terrestrial Invertebrates as Salmonid Prey and Nitrogen Sources in Streams: Contrasting Old-Growth and Young-Growth Riparian Forests in Southeastern Alaska, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54:1259-1269.
98. Wipfli, M.S. and D.P. Gregovich, 2002. Export of Invertebrates and Detritus From Fishless Headwater Streams in Southeastern Alaska: Implications for Downstream Salmonid Production. Freshwater Biology 47:957-969.
99. Wipfli, M.S. and J. Musslewhite, 2004. Density of Red Alder (Alnus rubra) in Headwaters Influences Invertebrate and Detritus Subsidies to Downstream Fish Habitats in Alaska. Hydrobiologia 520:153-163.
100. Wipfli, M.S., J.P. Hudson, and J.P. Caouette, 1998. Influence of Salmon Carcasses on Stream Productivity: Response of Biofilm and Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Southeastern Alaska, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55:1503-1511.
101. Wipfli, M.S., J.P. Hudson, J.P. Caouette, and D.T. Chaloner, 2003. Marine Subsidies in Freshwater Ecosystems: Salmon Carcasses Increase the Growth Rates of Stream-Resident Salmonids. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132:371-381.
102. Wotton, R.S. and B. Malmqvist, 2001. Feces in Aquatic Ecosystems. BioScience 51:537-544.
103. Wotton, R.S., B. Malmqvist, T. Muotka, and K. Larsson, 1998. Fecal Pellets From a Dense Aggregation of Suspension Feeders in a Stream: An Example of Ecosystem Engineering. Limnology and Oceanography 43:719-725.