Is there a crisis of accountability in the american research university?

Minerva

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 129-145

  Smith, Bruch L R ^a   Korn, David ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BIOETHICS; CONFLICT OF INTEREST; DRUG INDUSTRY; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHICS; HISTORY; MANPOWER; MEDICAL RESEARCH; METHODOLOGY; RESEARCH; RESEARCH ETHICS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; STANDARD; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSITY;

BIOETHICS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; CONFLICT OF INTEREST; DRUG INDUSTRY; ETHICS, RESEARCH; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; RESEARCH; SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSITIES;

EID: 33847221554     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1026544926596     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. For example, Jonathan R. Cole, Provost of Columbia University, reported in 1993 that Columbia University's annual budget grew from $57 million in 1959-1960 to $170 million in 1969-1970, to $317 million by 1979-1980, and to about $800 million by 1989-1990. For 1993-1994, the figure was $1.1 billion which meant that 'our annual expenses [were] increasing at a compound rate of close to 10 per cent for the past 45 years'. See Jonathan R. Cole, 'Balancing Acts: Dilemmas of Choice Facing Research Universities', in The American Research University', Daedalus, Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 122 (4), (1993), 3. The President's Report for 1998-1999 reports consolidated revenues at $1.581 billion and expenditures at $1.418 billion for the year ending 30 June 1999. President's Report, 1998-1999, 'A Global Perspective' (New York: Columbia University, 1999).
2. For a conceptual analysis of the different meanings of the term 'accountability' in relation to science, see Bruce L. R. Smith, 'The Accountability of Science', Minerva, 34 (1), (1996), 45-56, and more generally, Bruce L. R. Smith and Douglas C. Hague (eds.), The Dilemma of Accountability in Modem Government (London: Macmillan, 1971).
3. Roger G. Noll, 'The American Research University: An Introduction', in Roger G. Noll (ed.), Challenges to Research Universities (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 10. A list of the universities so defined may be found on pp. 7-9.
4. Speech delivered by Michael Crow, Executive Vice Provost, Columbia University, delivered at Dean's Day (May 2000), Washington DC Alumnae Chapter, St. Albans School, Washington DC.
5. Lynne G. Zucker and Michael R. Darby, 'The Economists' Case for Biomédical Research', in Claude E. Barfield and Bruce L. R. Smith (eds.), The Future of Biomédical Research (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute and The Brookings Institution, 1997), 42-66.
6. In Fiscal Year 1998 (the latest published data), aggregate revenues in the 125 US medical schools totaled $37 billion. Total grants and contracts amounted to $10.9 billion, with $6.8 billion from all Federal sources, of which $5.7 billion were from NIH, and represented 51 per cent of total NIH extramural research awards for that year. See J. Y. Krakower, D. J. Williams, and R. F. Jones, 'Review of U.S. Medical School Finances, 1997-98', Journal of the American Medical Association, 282 (9), (1999), 847-854.
7. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators, 1998 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1998), 5-11, displays the growth of biomédical research funding.
8. Stephen P. Strickland, Politics, Science, and Dread Disease: A Short History of United States Medical Research Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 1972), and
9. Donald Swain, 'The Rise of a Research Empire: NIH 1930 to 1950', Science, 138 (3546), (14 December 1962), 1233-1237.
10. See Gregg Zachary, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
11. Strickland, op. cit. note 8.
12. Don K. Price, The Scientific Estate (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965)
13. and Bruce L. R. Smith, American Science Policy since World War II (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1990), ch. 3.
14. The concept of 'process accountability was first articulated by David Z. Robinson, then Provost of New York University, in Smith and Hague (eds.), op. cit. note 2.
15. Public Law 93-348 (88 Stat. 342), adopted 12 July 1974.
16. Daniel J. Kevles, The Baltimore Case (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999);
17. and Marcel LaFollette, Stealing Into Print (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
18. A few copies of the report - National Institutes of Health, Office of the Director, Investment for Humanity: A Strategic Vision for the National Institutes of Health (1993) -were actually printed before the formal withdrawal and are now something of a collector's item.
19. The initial report that dramatized the issue is 'Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments - Final Report' (October 1995). The report may be found at http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/report.html.
20. Alan B. Cobban, The English Medieval Universities to c.1500 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), ch. 4;
21. James McConica (ed.), The History of the University of Oxford. Vol. HI: The Collegiate University (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. ch. 1;
22. L. W. B. Brockliss, 'Patterns of Attendance at the University of Paris, 1400-1800', Historical Journal, 21 (3), (1978), 533-537;
23. Peter Denley, The Collegiate Movement in Italian Universities in the Late Middle Ages', History of Universities, X (1991), 29-91.
24. Edward de Maesschack, The Relationship between the University and the City of Louvain in the Fifteeenth Century', History of Universities, IX (1990), esp. 46-47.
25. The Archbishop of Canterbury eventually moved against the Wycliffites at Oxford: see J. I. Catto, 'Wyclif and Wycliffism at Oxford, 1356-1430', in J.I. Catto and T.A.R. Evans (eds.), The History of the University of Oxford. Vol. II: Late Medieval Oxford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), ch. 5.
26. Rashdall, op. cit. note 10, vol. 1,417-418;
27. Cobban, op. cit. note 13, esp. 259-260.
28. The basic history remains A. Grant, Story of the University of Edinburgh (London: Longman, 2 vols., 1884).
29. The sceptical philosopher, David Hume, was one candidate for a post whom the Council vetoed on religious grounds. For a good introduction to the University in its golden age, see Jack Morrell, 'The University of Edinburgh in the Late Eighteenth Century: Its Scientific Eminence and Academic Structure', Isis, 62 (1971), 158-171.
30. For the growing opposition to Council rule in the medical field, see in particular, Christopher Lawrence, 'The Edinburgh Medical School and the End of the "Old Thing" ', History of Universities, VII ( 1988), 259-286.
31. Rashdall, op. cit. note 10, vol. III, 96-102.
32. J. B. L. Crévier, Histoire de l'université de Paris depuis son origine jusqu'en l'aimée 1600 (Paris: chez Desaint & Saillant, 7 vols., 1761 ), vol. VI, 29-49.
33. Andrew Hegarty, 'The Corporate University in the Age of Olivares: Salamanca, c. 1620-1640' (Unpublished D. Phil. Dissertation, University of Oxford, 1998), 104-116.
34. L. W. B. Brockliss, French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Cultural History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 281-282.
35. Graham Midgley, University Life in Eighteenth-Century Oxford (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996), 147.
36. Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 182-184;
37. L. W. B. Brockliss, 'The New Paris Medical School and the Invention of the Clinic', in The French Experience from Republic to Monarchy, 1793-1824: New Dawns in Politics, Education and Culture (London, 2000) éd. Maire Cross.
38. Herbert Cole, Things for the Surgeon: A History of the Resurrection Men (London: Heinemann, 1964). Grave-robbing went back to the sixteenth century. Under the Anatomy Act surgeons were granted the right to dissect the bodies of the poor who died in hospital, when they were not claimed by friends or relatives.
39. The University had originally been founded by the elector of Saxony as a rival to Leipzig in ducal Saxony at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
40. Brockliss, op. cit. note 23, 74-75.
41. Archives Départementales de la Vaucluse, série D 147, fo. 433.
42. For the philosophy behind the foundation of the first English 'redbricks', see David R. Jones, The Origin of Civic Universities: Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool (London: Routledge, 1988).
43. For the position in the German speaking parts of Europe, see McClelland, op. cit. note 9, 217-232.
44. Various papers delivered at a colloqium to mark the 700th anniversary of the 1289 statutes in 1989. On this occasion, a service in the cathedral held to mark the centenary celebrations was attended by the municipality and the University.
45. Louis Dulieu, La Medicine àMontpellier, vol. 3, Epoque classique (2 parts, separate volumes; Avignon: La Presse Universelle, 1985), pt. 1, 102-105. Europe's first medical school was at Salerno but the Italian university has had a chequered history. It was closed by Murat in 1811 and only restored in 1968.
46. Many still stand - witness Leyden, or the area of Oxford University known as the 'Schools', which now houses part of the University Library, itself established precociously early thanks to the bequest of Sir Thomas Bodley in 1602.
47. Trinity was founded originally outside the walls of Dublin in 1592. Today it has now outgrown its traditional boundaries, but still remains largely an hermetically sealed academic island in the mist of a vast urban sea.
48. M.G. Brock and M.C. Curthoys (eds.), The History of the University of Oxford. Vol. VI: Nineteenth-Century Oxford, Part 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), chs. 1822;
49. Christopher N. L. Brooke, A History of the University of Cambridge. Vol. 1:1870-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 173-175.
50. In France since the 1970s an attempt has been made to restore the physical integrity of the university by recognizing its spatial diffusion and replacing the mother institution by a series of separate, specialized universities: Paris now boasts thirteen. This development was made easier in France by virtue of the fact that in the nineteenth century the traditional university was replaced by independent faculties under the umbrella of the ministry of education. The faculties were grouped into universities again in 1896. A similar development has been forced on the University of London, which has now all but split up into a series of independent colleges and institutes.
51. T. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer, 'Une ampithéâtre d'anatomie moralisée', in T. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. Posthumus Meyjes (eds.), Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century. An Exchange of Learning (Leiden: Brill, 1975). [Being Peter of course he also insisted on attending a dissection, and, when his attendant courtiers were alarmed by the dismembering of the corpse, ordered that they pull apart the subject's muscles with their teeth.]
52. Sophie Forgan and Graeme Gooday, '"A Fungoid Assemblage of Buildings": Diversity and Adversity in the Development of College Architecture and Scientific Education in Nineteenth-Century South Kensington', History of Universities, XIII (1994), 153-192. Alfred Waterhouse's design for the new Technical College set the tone for science facilities built in other British universities, although the earlier Royal College was a classical building.
53. In Britain the civics soon ended up aping Oxbridge, if only because so many of their professors were Oxbridge educated: see Elizabeth J. Morse, 'English Civic Universities and the Myth of Decline', History of Universities, XI (1992), 177-204.
54. Oratio de instituenda in republica juventute ad senatum populumque Tolosatem'(1559), in idem, Oeuvres philosophiques (Paris: PUF, 1951), ed. P. Mesnard.
55. A. Ritter von Arneth (ed.), Maria Theresa und Joseph. Ihre Correspondent (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn, 1867-1868), part 3, 348-349. In the late 1780s, Joseph, conversely, would begin the transfer of the University of Leuven to Brussels.
56. J. R. de S. Honey, Tom Brown's Universe: The Development of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977).
57. The standard account of the development of the university system in the United States is Laurence R. Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
58. For the campus phenomenon, especially, see Paul V. Turner, Campus: An American Planning Tradition (New York and Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987),
59. and Sheldon Rothblatt, The Modem University and its Discontents: The Fate of Newman 's Legacies in Britain and America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), ch. 2.
60. In Breaking Away ( 1979), the students call the locals 'cutters', a reference to the stonecutting industry in the region.
61. This point was made in a paper given to the 1993 Aberdeen conference.
62. As in the case of the American campus university, gown-town relations were not always good, especially after the 'student revolution' of the late 1960s. A local Norwich MP supposedly said of the University of East Anglia,: 'We've exchanged a second-rate golf course for a third rate university'. (Personal communication from a former UEA professor.)
63. Paper given at the Coimbra meeting, op. cit. note 1.
64. The University of Bordeaux, or rather the Universities of Bordeaux 1 (sciences) and III (letters and social sciences) at Talence, boasts the largest campus in the world.
65. The site lacks a faculty of medicine. The Walloon medical students and professors from Leuven were relocated in a separate faculty of medicine at Brussels around appropriate hospital facilities.
66. Interestingly, the administrative headquarters of this new university was and is at Milton Keynes, itself a 'new' town, completely constructed in the 1960s on a greenfield site. However, the location seems to have been fortuitous. The undergraduate programme began in 1971. See \V. Perry, Open University: A Personal Account by the First Vice-Chancellor (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1976).
67. Sir Graham Hills spoke to the 1993 Aberdeen conference when the University of the Highlands was first being planned. The new initiative, unsurprisingly, has not been welcomed by the Universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen who fear its effect on their own 'out-reach' programmes in the north of Scotland.
68. A sign of the future is the recent report (March 2000) commissioned jointly by the Higher Education Funding Council for England and the Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals of the United Kingdom, entitled, The Business of Borderless Education: UK Perspectives. This does not envisage the disappearance of the physical university but its disaggregation, as separate disciplines across the country (and by extension, the world) pool their teaching resources and expertise to maximize efficiency.