An Indian trust for the twenty-first century

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 317-374

  Gover, Kevin ^a  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FEDERAL SYSTEM; LAND MANAGEMENT; LAND USE; POLICY MAKING; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33846673705     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. See Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and American Indians 108-14 (1984).
2. The current version of the statute is found at 25 U.S.C. § 177 (2001).
3. Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).
4. Prucha, supra note 1, at 108-11.
5. See, e.g., Treaty with the Delawares, 1778, Sept. 17, 1778, 7 U.S.T. 13, available at http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/ del0003.hmt.
6. See, e.g., Treaty with the Cherokee, 1785, Nov. 28, 1785, 7 U.S.T. 18, available at http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/ che0008.htm.
7. U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831).
8. Id. at 13.
9. Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515, 553 (1832).
10. Id.
11. Id. at 555.
12. Id. at 553-54.
13. Id. at 559.
14. Id. at 559-60.
15. Act of March 3, 1871, ch. 120, § 1, 16 Stat. 566 (1871) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 71 (2000)).
16. Act of March 3, 1885, ch. 341, § 9, 23 Stat. 385 (codified at 18 U.S.C. § 1153 (2000)).
17. 118 U.S. 375 (1886).
18. Id. at 382.
19. Id. at 383-85.
20. Prucha, supra note 1, at 661-66.
21. See also Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Assault on Indian Tribalism: The General Allotment Law (Dawes Act) of 1887 (rev. ed. 1986).
22. Indian General Allotment Act, ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388 (1887).
23. Prucha, supra note 1, at 864-65.
24. Indian General Allotment Act, ch. 119, § 5, 24 Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 348 (2000)).
25. 187 U.S. 553 (1903).
26. Id. at 554.
27. Id. at 560-61.
28. Id. at 565.
29. Id. at 566.
30. Id. at 568 (citation omitted).
31. Prucha, supra note 1, at 671.
32. Id. at 896 n.80.
33. See also Wilcomb E. Washburn, Red Man's Land - White Man's Law: A Study of the Past and Present Status of the American Indian 75 (1971).
34. Prucha, supra note 1, at 896.
35. Lone Wolf, 187 U.S. at 568.
36. See Indian General Allotment Act, ch. 119, § 5, 24 Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 348 (2001)).
37. Prucha, supra note 1, at 876.
38. Id. at 672.
39. Id. at 865-66.
40. Indian General Allotment Act, ch. 119, Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 349 (1994)).
41. Prucha, supra note 1, at 881.
42. Id. at 882-83.
43. Id. at 896.
44. Id. at 672.
45. Id. at 672 n.31.
46. Id. at 895.
47. Id. at 872-74.
48. Id. at 873.
49. Oversight Hearing on the Status of the Indian Trust Fund Lawsuit Before the H.R. Comm. on Resources, 109th Cong. 2 (2005) (statement of James Cason, Associate Deputy Secretary of the Interior).
50. American Indian Trust Fund Management Reform Act, Pub. L. No. 103-412, 108 Stat. 4239 (1994) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. §§ 4001-4061 (Supp. 2005)).
51. Cobell v. Babbitt, 91 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D.D.C. 1999), aff'd in part and remanded in part by Cobell v. Norton, 240 F.3d 1081 (D.C. Cir. 2001).
52. Brookings Inst., Inst. for Gov't Res., The Problem of Indian Administration 460 (Lewis Meriam tech. dir., 1928) [hereinafter Meriam Report].
53. Id. at 447.
54. Id. at 448.
55. Id. at 430-37.
56. Prucha, supra note 1, at 797-813.
57. Act to conserve and develop Indian lands and resources; to extend to Indians the right to form business and other organizations; to establish a credit system for Indians; to grant certain rights of home rule to Indians; to provide for vocational education for Indians; and for other purposes, ch. 576, 48 Stat. 984 (1934) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. §§ 461-479 (1994)) [hereinafter Indian Reorganization Act of 1934].
58. Id. § 16, 48 Stat. at 987.
59. Id. § 17, 48 Stat. at 988.
60. Id. § 5, 48 Stat. at 985.
61. Id. § 10, 48 Stat. at 986.
62. Id. § 12, 48 Stat. at 986.
63. See David W. Daily, Battle for the BIA: G.E.E. Lindquist and the Missionary Crusade Against John Collier 82-87 (2004).
64. Id. at 87-99.
65. See Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, ch. 576, 48 Stat. 984.
66. See, e.g., 1939 Sec. Interior Ann. Rep. 36-37.
67. For an excellent description of the impact of the War, see Alison R. Bernstein, American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs (1991).
68. See also Donald L. Fixico, Termination and Relocation: Federal Indian Policy, 1945-1960, at 3-20 (1986).
69. See generally Daily, supra note 60, at 101-48.
70. See Fixico, supra note 64, at 21-62.
71. The criteria for this determination were "(1) degree of acculturation of a tribe; (2) economic condition of the tribe; (3) willingness of the tribe and its members to dispense with federal aid; and (4) willingness and ability of the state in which a tribe lived to assume the responsibilities dropped by the federal government." Prucha, supra note 1, at 1026.
72. Fixico, supra note 64, at 33.
73. H.R. Con. Res. 108, 83rd Cong. (1953) (enacted).
74. Robert N, Clinton et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System: Cases and Materials 40 (4th ed. 2003) (internal quotations omitted).
75. Id.
76. Id.
77. Prucha, supra note 1, at 1058-59.
78. Fixico, supra note 64, at 183-86.
79. Prucha, supra note 1, at 1059.
80. Id. at 1091-95.
81. Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-452, 78 Stat. 508 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 2701-2981 (2000)).
82. Prucha, supra note 1, at 1094.
83. Id.
84. Id. at 1095.
85. Special Message to the Congress on the Problems of the American Indian: "The Forgotten American," 1 Pub. Papers 335 (Mar. 6, 1968) (internal quotations omitted).
86. Id. at 336.
87. Prucha, supra note 1, at 1111.
88. Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs, 1 Pub. Papers 564 (July 8, 1970).
89. Id. at 565-66.
90. Id. at 566-67.
91. Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 93-638, 88 Stat. 2203.
92. See 25 U.S.C. § 450f(a) (1995).
93. See, e.g., Hearing on Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act - Contract Support Costs Before the S. Comm. on Indian Affairs, 106th Cong. (1999) (statement of Michael E. Lincoln, Deputy Director, Indian Health Service);
94. Oversight Hearing on the Bureau of Indian Affairs Capacity and Mission Before the S. Comm. on Indian Affairs, 106th Cong. (1999) (statement of Kevin Gover, Assistant Secretary-Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior).
95. Tribal Self-Governance Act, Pub. L. No. 103-413, 108 Stat. 4270 (1994).
96. American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-330, 110 Stat. 4016.
97. Health Care Improvement Act of 1976, Pub. L. No. 94-437, 90 Stat. 1400.
98. Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95-471, 92 Stat. 1325.
99. Indian Law Enforcement Reform Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-379, 104 Stat. 473.
100. American Indian Religious Freedom Act, Pub. L. No. 95-341, 92 Stat. 469 (1978).
101. National Museum of the American Indian Act, Pub. L. No. 101-185, 103 Stat. 1336 (1989).
102. Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Pub. L. No. 101-601, 104 Stat. 3048 (1990).
103. Native American Languages Act, Pub. L. No. 101-477, 104 Stat. 1153 (1990).
104. U.S. Census Bureau, Insurance, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2004 12 (2005), available at http://www.census.gov/ prod/2005pubs/p60-229.pdf (according to the Census Bureau, from 2002-2004 the Indian poverty rate of 24.3% was nearly twice that for all races (12.4%)).
105. Indian Financing Act, Pub. L. No. 93-262, 88 Stat. 77 (1974).
106. Indian Tribal Governmental Tax Status Act, Pub. L. No.97-473, 96 Stat. 2607 (1983).
107. Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, Pub. L. No. 100-497, 102 Stat. 2467 (1988).
108. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, Pub. L. No.99-499, 100 Stat. 1615, 1706 (1986) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 9626 (Supp. 2005)).
109. See Safe Drinking Water Act, Pub. L. No. 99-339, 100 Stat. 642, 665 (1986) (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 300j-311 (Supp. 2005)).
110. See Clean Water Act, Pub. L. No. 100-4, 101 Stat. 7, 76 (1987) (codified at 33 U.S.C. § 1377 (Supp. 2005)).
111. See Clean Air Act, Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 (1990) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 7601(d) (Supp. 2005)).
112. See Indian Environmental General Assistance Program Act, Pub. L. No. 102-497, 106 Stat. 3258 (1992) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 4368b (2000)).
113. Menominee Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 93-197, 87 Stat. 770 (1973) (codified at 25 U.S.C. § 903-903f (Supp. 2005));
114. Klamath Indian Tribe Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 99-398 § 2, 100 Stat. 849 (1986) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 566-566h (1995)).
115. Siletz Indian Tribe Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 95-195, 91 Stat. 1415 (1977) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 711-711f (Supp. 2005)).
116. Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians Recognition Act, Pub. L. No. 97-391, 96 Stat. 1960 (1982) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 712-712d (Supp. 2005)).
117. Grand Ronde Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 98-165, 97 Stat. 1064 (1983) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 713-713g (Supp. 2005)).
118. Coos, Lower Umpqua and Siuslaw Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 98-481, 98 Stat. 2250 (1984) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 714-714f (Supp. 2005)).
119. Coquille Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 101-42, 103 Stat. 91 (1989) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 715-715g (Supp. 2005)).
120. Paiute Indian Tribe of Utah Restoration Act, Pub. L. No. 96-227, § 2, 94 Stat. 317 (1980) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 761-768 (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
121. Rhode Island Indian Claims Settlement Act, Pub L. No. 95-395, § 2, 92 Stat. 813 (1978) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1701-1716 (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
122. Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 96-420, § 2, 94 Stat. 1785 (1980) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1721-1735 (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
123. Mashantucket Pequot Indian Claims Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 98-134, § 2, 97 Stat. 851 (1983) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1751-1760 (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
124. Mohegan Nation of Connecticut Land Claims Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 103-377, § 2, 108 Stat. 3501 (1994) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1775-1775h (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
125. Wampanoag Tribal Council of Gay Head, Inc., Indian Claims Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 100-95, 101 Stat. 704 (1987) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1771-1771i (2004)).
126. Gila River Indian Community Water Rights Settlement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-451, tit. II, § 201, 118 Stat. 3499 (2004) (codified at 43 U.S.C. § 1501, amending 43 U.S.C.. § 1524 (Supp 2005)).
127. Southern Arizona Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 97-293, tit. III, 96 Stat. 1274 (1982).
128. Zuni Indian Tribe Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 108-34, 117 Stat. 782 (2003).
129. Shivwits Band of the Paiute Indian Tribe of Utah Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 106-263, 114 Stat. 737 (2000).
130. Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 103-434, 108 Stat. 4526 (1994).
131. San Carlos Apache Tribe Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 102-575, tit. XXXVII, 106 Stat. 4740 (1992).
132. Fallon Paiute Shoshone Indian Tribes Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 101-618, 104 Stat. 3289 (1990).
133. Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community Water Rights Settlement Act, Pub. L. No. 100-512, 102 Stat. 2549 (1988).
134. Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs, 1 Pub. Papers 564, 566-67 (July 8, 1970).
135. Act to authorize the purchase, sale, and exchange of lands by Indian tribes and by the Devils Lake Sioux Tribe of the Devils Lake Sioux Reservation of North Dakota specifically, and for other purposes, Pub. L. No. 97-459, tit. II, § 202, 96 Stat. 2517 (1983).
136. Technical Amendments to Various Indian Laws Act, Pub. L. No. 102-238 § 3, 105 Stat. 1908 (1991);
137. Indian Land Consolidation Act Amendments, Pub. L. No. 106-462, § 103, 114 Stat. 1992 (2000);
138. American Indian Probate Reform Act, Pub. L. No. 108-374, 118 Stat. 1773 (2004).
139. American Indian Trust Fund Management Reform Act of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-412, § 2, 108 Stat 4239 (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 4001-4061 (1994)).
140. To permit Indian tribes to enter into certain agreements for the disposition of tribal mineral resources, and for other purposes Act, Pub. L. No. 97-382, 96 Stat. 1938 (1982).
141. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 701, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002) (codified at 20 U.S.C. § 7401 (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
142. Indian Tribal Justice Act of 1993, Pub. L. No.103-176 § 2, 107 Stat. 2004 (codified at 25 U.S.C. § 3601 (2004)).
143. Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act, Pub. L. No. 104-330, § 2, 110 Stat. 4017 (1996) (codified at 25 U.S.C. § 4101(4) (2000 & Supp. 2005)).
144. Carcieri v. Norton, 423 F.3d 45, 60 n.4 (1st Cir. 2005),
145. quoting Connecticut ex rel. Blumenthal v. U.S. Dep't of Interior, 228 F.3d 82, 85-86 (2d Cir. 2000).
146. Squire v. Capoeman, 351 U.S. 1 (1956).
147. 18 U.S.C. § 1154 imposes criminal penalties under certain circumstances for sales of alcohol to Indians. "Indian country" is defined to exclude fee-patented lands in non-Indian communities within reservations.
148. 18 U.S.C. § 1156 imposes criminal penalties for possession of alcohol in "Indian country," which is defined to exclude fee-patented lands in non-Indian communities on reservations.
149. 420 U.S. 425 (1975).
150. Id. at 428 n.2,
151. citing, inter alia, McClanahan v. Ariz. State Tax Comm'n, 411 U.S. 164, 177-78 n.17 (1973).
152. Id. at 445.
153. 450 U.S. 544 (1981).
154. Id. at 557.
155. Id. at 557-67.
156. 532 U.S. 645 (2001).
157. Id. at 653 n.5.
158. See, e.g., Nevada v. Hicks, 533 U.S. 353, 357-63 (2001).
159. 502 U.S. 251 (1992).
160. 34 Stat. 182 (1906).
161. County of Yakima, 502 U.S. at 258-59.
162. See 25 U.S.C. § 465 (Supp. 2005).
163. 524 U.S. 103 (1998).
164. Relief and Civilization of the Chippewa Indians in the State of Minnesota Act, ch. 24, 25 Stat. 642 (1899).
165. Cass County, 524 U.S. at 113.
166. 203 U.S. 146 (1906).
167. County of Yakima, 502 U.S. at 263
168. (quoting Goudy v. Meath, 203 U.S. 146, 149 (1906)).
169. Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law 80 (1942).
170. 25 U.S.C. § 483a (2000 & Supp. 2005) authorizes mortgages of individually owned trust lands, subject to the approval of the Department of the Interior. No similar provision exists for tribally owned trust lands.
171. See 25 U.S.C. § 177 (2000 & Supp. 2005).
172. See 25 C.F.R. § 162.604(b)(3) (2005). "Leases may be granted or approved by the Secretary at less than the fair annual rental when in his judgment such action would be in the best interest of the landowners."
173. Id.
174. See 25 C.F.R. § 162.107 a.
175. The Department of the Interior "will defer to the landowners' determination that the lease is in their best interest, to the maximum extent possible." Id. (emphasis added).
176. See 25 C.F.R. § 162.600-162.621 (No deadlines for review and approval of business leases appear in the regulations.).
177. Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, Pub. L. No. 93-638, § 2, 88 Stat. 2203 (1975)
178. 25 C.F.R. § 162.110 (2005).
179. See generally Dep't of the Interior, Comprehensive Trust Management Plan, ch. 4 (2003), available at http://www.doi.gov/indiantrust/pdf/ doi_trust_management_plan.pdf
180. In a recent radio interview, Special Trustee Ross O. Swimmer observed that the landowners are "the first persons responsible for leasing the land," and that the BIA only approves those leases. See Indianz.com, Swimmer Shifts Trust Responsibility to Landowners, Sept. 8, 2005, http://www.indianz.com/News/2005/010219.asp. Though the cited report is critical of Swimmer's position, he is clearly correct. With rare exceptions, the Department only approves leases.
181. Oversight Hearing on the Bureau of Indian Affairs Capacity and Mission Before the S. Comm. on Indian Affairs, 106th Cong. 4 (1999) (statement of Kevin Gover, Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior).
182. 445 U.S. 535 (1980).
183. General Allotment (Dawes) Act, ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388 (1887).
184. Mitchell, 445 U.S. at 542.
185. Id. at 542-43.
186. United States v. Mitchell, 463 U.S. 206 (1983).
187. Id. at 219-23.
188. Id. at 224.
189. Id. at 225.
190. Id.
191. Id. at 226.
192. Id. at 226-27.
193. 537 U.S. 488 (2003).
194. Indian Mineral Leasing Act, ch. 198, 52 Stat. 347 (1938) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 396a-396g (Supp. 2005)).
195. Id. § 396a.
196. Navajo Nation, 537 U.S. at 506-09.
197. Id. at 494.
198. Id.
199. Id.
200. (citing 25 U.S.C. § 396d).
201. Id. at 494-95 (internal quotation marks omitted).
202. Id. at 497.
203. Id. at 495-500.
204. Id. at 506.
205. Id. at 507-08 (quoting Mitchell, 463 U.S. at 224-25).
206. (quoting Mitchell, 463 U.S. at 224-25).
207. Id. at 514.
208. 25 U.S.C. § 415 (Supp. 2005).
209. 25 C.F.R. § 162.107 a calls for a "fair annual rental," which is defined as "the amount of rental income that a leased tract of Indian land would most probably command
210. " 25 C.F.R. § 162.101 (2006).
211. McClanahan v. Ariz. State Tax Comm'n, 411 U.S. 164, 172 (1973) (citatious, omitted).
212. See Indianz.com, Bush Administration Won't Give Up Fight on Cobell, Mar. 18, 2005, http://indianz.com/News/2005/007113.asp (describing comments of members of the House of Representatives Appropriations Committee's Subcommittee on Interior Appropriations).
213. Reservation populations range from less than 10 to over 250,000, and reservations vary in size from six acres to the size of West Virginia. See generally American Indian Reservations and Trust Areas (Veronica E. Velarde Tiller ed., 1996). Tribal physical environments include everything from high desert to rain forests. Their histories are as varied as that of the 50 States. Some have treaties with the United States; others do not. Socio-economic conditions range from genuine prosperity to grinding poverty. Of the 560 or so federally recognized Tribes, over 220 are in Alaska, where only one Tribe has a reservation.
214. See Indian Entities Recognized and Eligible to Receive Services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, 68 Fed. Reg. 68,180 (Dec. 5, 2003);
215. San Diego State University, Library & Information Access, California Indians and Their Reservations: An Online Dictionary, http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calinddict.shtml (last visited Nov. 13, 2006). Over 100 are in California, many with very small reservations and small populations. Thirty eight are in Oklahoma, where there are no reservations, though there is trust land over which the Tribes have jurisdiction.
216. See Tiller, supra, at 497-538.
217. The Department of the Interior made a ham-handed effort at distinguishing among Tribes in the early 1990s when it announced that "historic" Tribes (those intact since their contact with Europeans, particularly treaty Tribes) had inherent sovereignty, while "created" Tribes (those Indian communities cast together from several groups or that were only a part of larger groups from which they had separated) did not have inherent sovereignty. While the facial appeal of the distinction is somewhat understandable, the Department of the Interior painted with too broad a brush. Congress almost immediately enacted legislation prohibiting any regulation, decision, or determination-made by any federal agency pursuant to any Act of Congress-that "classifies, enhances, or diminishes the privileges and immunities available to a federally recognized Indian tribe relative to the privileges and immunities available to other federally recognized tribes by virtue of their status as Indian tribes." 25 U.S.C. § 476 (f), (g) (2000).
218. U.S.C. § 4501 (d)(1)(B) (Supp. 2006).
219. C.F.R. § 162.110 (2006).
220. U.S.C. § 415(a)-(d) (2000).
221. Navajo Nation Trust Land Leasing Act, 25 U.S.C. § 415(d)-(e) (2000).
222. Id. § 415(e)(6).
223. The Acts also specifically provide that they do not diminish the trust responsibility. See Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, Pub. L. No. 93-638, 88 Stat. 2203, 2213 (1975);
224. Tribal Self-Governance Act, Pub. L. No.103-413, 108 Stat. 4270, 4267 (1994). Thus, the Department of the Interior is unable to free itself from, for example, statutory approval requirements without specific congressional authorization.
225. Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, Pub. L. No. 100-497, § 11, 102 Stat. 2467, 2472 (1988) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 2701, 2710(d) (Supp. 2005)).
226. Both Tribes and lenders should proceed with considerable care before taking such a step, though. Realistically, non-Indian lenders are not likely to be sanguine about owning an asset under tribal jurisdiction without certain assurances as to their rights as landowners. Tribes may find that they have to make assurances regarding their use of their authority to tax and regulate lands within their authority. Further, some tribal courts may lack jurisdiction over disputes arising from contracts between Indians and non-Indians, or may simply lack the experience and capability to entertain commercial litigation. Tribes may find that, in order to attract lenders to the reservations, they will have to agree to alternatives to litigation in tribal court. Some will decide that this is too high a price to pay. Both are legitimate choices, and the decision should be up to the Tribes.
227. U.S.C. § 415(f) (Supp. 2002).
228. U.S.C. §§ 1-16 (2000).
229. See 25 C.F.R. §§ 162.108, 162.110 (2006)
230. U.S.C. § 415(e) (2000).
231. See Trust Evaluation Review, 25 C.F.R. §§ 1000.350-1000.367 (2005).
232. The program was established by the Indian Land Consolidation Act Amendments, Pub. L. No. 106-462, § 103(6), 114 Stat. 1999 (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 2205-2219 (Supp. 2005)).
233. Changes to the program were made in the American Indian Probate Reform Act, Pub. L. No. 108-374, § 6(a)(5), 108 Stat. 1773, 1800 (2004) (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 2220-2221 (Supp. 2005).
234. U.S. Comm'n on Civil Rights, A Quiet Crisis: Federal Funding and Unmet Needs in Indian Country 24-26 (2003).
235. U.S.C. § 465 (2000).
236. See 25 C.F.R. § 151.10-11 (2006).
237. Compare factors considered for on-reservation acquisitions to those for off-reservation acquisitions, 25 C.F.R. §§ 161.10-161.11 (2005).
238. See Indian Land Consolidation Act, 25 U.S.C. §§ 2201-2221 (2000).
239. Joint Oversight Hearing of the Senate Comm. on Indian Affairs and the House Comm. on Resources, 109th Cong. 5 (2006) (testimony of Charles Renfrew & John Bickerman), available at http://www.indian.senate.gov/ public/_files/RenfrewBickerman.pdf.