Criminalizing the financing of terrorism

Journal of International Criminal Justice

Volumn 4, Issue 5, 2006, Pages 1074-1086

  Pieth, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BASEL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33846625557     PISSN: 14781387     EISSN: 14781395     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jicj/mql062     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. The 9/11 Commission Report, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (1st authorized edn., New York, London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005), 381 et seq. addresses how to 'starve the terrorists of money'.
2. FATF, Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing (2001, revised version 22 October 2004); see also Interpretative Notes, in particular to Special Recommendation II ('Criminalizing the Financing of Terrorism and Associated Money Laundering') and to Special Recommendation III ('Freezing and Confiscating Terrorist Assets'), as well as FATF, Freezing of Terrorist Assets, International Best Practices (3 October 2003).
3. United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, UN Doc. A/RES/54/109, 9 December 1999 (henceforth cited as 1999 UN Convention).
4. J.M. Winer, 'Globalization, Terrorist Finance and Global Conflict - Time for a White List?' in M. Pieth (ed.), Financing Terrorism (Dordrecht, Boston, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002) 5-40, at 6; The 9/11 Commission Report, supra note 1, at 381 et seq.
5. Council of Europe Legal Affairs, Measures Against the Transfer and the Safekeeping of Funds of Criminal Origin, Recommendation No. R (80)10 adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 27 June 1980, and Explanatory Memorandum 1981.
6. United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 19 December 1988 (henceforth cited as 1988 UN Convention).
7. 8 UN Convention, supra note 6, Target 23, at 63 et seq.: 'Forfeiture of the Instruments and Proceeds of Illegal Drug Trafficking'; the issue of criminalizing money laundering, however, was introduced in Art. 3 of the Convention, ibid., and in the political Declaration of the General Assembly in the GA Res. S-17/2, 15 March 1990.
8. M. Pieth, 'Financing of Terrorism: Following the Money', in Pieth (ed.), supra note 4, 115-126, at 118.
9. For details about this development see M. Pieth and G. Aiolfi, A Comparative Guide to Anti-Money Laundering: A Critical Analysis of Systems in Singapore, Switzerland, the UK and the USA (1st edn., Cheltenham, UK/Northampton, USA: Edward Elgar, 2004), 3 et seq.
10. See also the contributions of G.P. Fletcher,T. Weigend and A. Cassese in this issue.
11. J.M.Winer, supra note 4, at 5.
12. U. Cassani, 'Droit pénal é conomique 2003-2005: Actualité législative (responsabilité pénale de l'entreprise, financement du terrorisme, corruption)', in W. Fellman and T. Poledna (eds), La pratique de l'avocat (2005), 671-709, at 6-9.
13. E.g. the OFAC list in the United States or the UN list established by SC Res. 1267 (1999).
14. Cf. M. Kilchling, Die Praxis der Gewinnabschöpfung in Europa (Freiburg i.Br.: Max Planck-Institut, 2003), at 449 et seq.
15. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 16 December 1970; Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 23 September 1971; Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, Supplementary to the above 1970 Convention, 24 February 1988.
16. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, 10 March 1988; Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, 10 March 1988. For an analysis of UN responses to terrorism see also the contributions of K. Nuotio and M. Sassòli in this issue.
17. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, 17 December 1997.
18. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, 15 December 1997.
19. 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3.
20. SC Res. 1373, 28 September 2001.
21. Cf. also the Organization of American States Convention to Prevent and Punish the Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related to Extortion that are of International Significance, 2 February 1971; Inter-American Convention against Terrorism, 3 June 2002; Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism, League of Arab States, 22 April 1998; Organisation of African Unity Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, 14 July 1999; Convention of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference on Combating Terrorism, 1 July 1999.
22. Council of Europe Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, 27 January 1977, CETS No. 90.
23. Council of Europe Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime, 8 November 1990, CETS No. 141.
24. Council of Europe Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime and on the Financing of Terrorism, 16 May 2005, CETS No. 198.
25. European Union Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002/ 475/JHA), OJ L164/3, 13 June 2002, (henceforth cited as 2002 EU Council Framework Decision).
26. E.g. Art. 48, 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24;
27. Art. 11, 2002 EU Council Framework Decision, supra note 25.
28. For identification, awareness and notification standards see Art. 18, 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3;
29. and FATF Special Recommendation IV, supra note 2.
30. Cf. the early attempts of the League of Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism (1937) and the more recent discussion of the difficulties in the literature. According to Antonio Cassese in more recent times it has been erroneously stated that there is a lack of definition. He rather diagnoses the problem as there being a lack of agreement on a possible exception for 'freedom fighters'; see A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 120 et seq. See also his contribution in this issue.
31. Cf. Art. 2(2), 1999 UN Convention.
32. See also the contribution of T.Weigend in this issue.
33. The Interpretative Note to Special Recommendation II, supra note 2, says in note 11: 'The law should permit the intentional element of the terrorist financing offence to be inferred from objective factual circumstances.'
34. See also FATF, Interpretative Note to Special Recommendation II, supra note 2.
35. The Swiss legislator referred to Annex III of the Report by the Chairman of theWorking Group of 26 October 1999, UN Doc A/C.6/54/L.2: Botschaft betreffend die Internationalen Übereinkommen zur Bekämpfung der Finanzierung des Terrorismus und zur Bekämpfung terroristischer Bombenanschläge sowie die Änderung des Strafgesetzbuches und die Anpassung weiterer Bundesgesetze vom 26. Juni 2002 (02.052), at 5404.
36. Art. 1, COE 1977 Convention, supra note 22; cf. also UN GA Res. 49/60 (1994), I. 3.
37. Art. 260 quinquies (4) Swiss Criminal Code; cf. also para 278c (3) Austrian Criminal Code.
38. Art. 2(1), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3.
39. Art. 305 bis Swiss Criminal Code.
40. Botschaft, supra note 33, at 5430.
41. Critical: U. Cassani, supra note 12, at 693.
42. Art. 1(1), 2002 EU Council Framework Decision, supra note 25.
43. 1988 UN Convention, supra note 6.
44. FATF, Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing, supra note 2.
45. Botschaft, supra note 33, at 5443.
46. Arts 2 and 9, 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24.
47. A. Kersten, 'Financing of Terrorism - a Predicate Offence?' in Pieth (ed.), supra note 4, 49-56;
48. Pieth, supra note 8, at 123.
49. FATF, Interpretative Note to Special Recommendation II, supra note 2.
50. FATF,The Forty Recommendations, 20 June 2003, R 2(b).
51. Art. 5(2), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3; see also Art. 2, OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, 21 November 1997, and the corresponding monitoring practice.
52. Art. 5(3), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3.
53. Ibid., Art. 7(1).
54. Ibid., Art. 12.
55. Ibid., Art. 11.
56. Ibid., Arts 13 and 14.
57. 9/11 Commission Report, supra note 1, at 381.
58. See also SC Res. 1333 (2000).
59. 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24.
60. On de-listing see FATF, Freezing of Terrorist Assets, supra note 2, at note 5 (V).
61. See 'Guidelines of the Sanctions Committee for the Conduct of Its Work', 7 November 2002, amended 10 April 2003 and revised 21 December 2005.
62. See Judgement of the Court of First Instance of the European Communities in case T-315/01 Yassin Abdullah Kadi, 21 September 2005.
63. Art. 8(2), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3;
64. Arts 23 et seq., 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24.
65. Art. 8(4), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3;
66. Art. 25(2), 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24.
67. Art. 8(3), 1999 UN Convention, supra note 3;
68. Art. 25(3), 2005 COE Convention, supra note 24.