메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 75, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 1501-1528

Duty in tort law: An economic approach

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 33846580484     PISSN: 0015704X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper
Times cited : (17)

References (91)
  • 1
    • 0348194818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Moral of MacPherson, 146
    • For criticism of the lack of attention to duty doctrine in modern torts scholarship, see
    • For criticism of the lack of attention to duty doctrine in modern torts scholarship, see John C.P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, The Moral of MacPherson, 146 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1733 (1998);
    • (1998) U. Pa. L. Rev , vol.1733
    • Goldberg, J.C.P.1    Zipursky, B.C.2
  • 2
    • 0345818723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John C.P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, The Restatement (Third) and the Place of Duty in Negligence Law, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 657 (2001) [hereinafter Goldberg & Zipursky, Duty in Negligence Law].
    • John C.P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, The Restatement (Third) and the Place of Duty in Negligence Law, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 657 (2001) [hereinafter Goldberg & Zipursky, Duty in Negligence Law].
  • 5
    • 33846626258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To be fair, Posner did examine the duty issue in a narrow setting in his article on rescue. See William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, Salvors, Finders, Good Samaritans, and Other Rescuers: An Economic Study of Law and Altruism, 7 J. Legal Stud. 83 (1978). The Landes-Posner analysis of rescue anticipates, in some respects, the argument of this paper. However, the Landes-Posner article on rescue does not claim to set out a general theory of duty doctrine, which is the aim of this essay.
    • To be fair, Posner did examine the duty issue in a narrow setting in his article on rescue. See William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, Salvors, Finders, Good Samaritans, and Other Rescuers: An Economic Study of Law and Altruism, 7 J. Legal Stud. 83 (1978). The Landes-Posner analysis of rescue anticipates, in some respects, the argument of this paper. However, the Landes-Posner article on rescue does not claim to set out a general theory of duty doctrine, which is the aim of this essay.
  • 6
    • 33846588702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There is a more general critique of consequentialist, or sanction-centered, theories of law that asserts that they are inadequate because they ignore the internal sense of obligation that is perceived by actors in advanced legal systems. See H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (2d ed. 1994). The lack of attention to duty doctrine reflected in the consequentialist approach could be viewed as an important fact supporting this internal-viewpoint critique. Looking from this perspective, this essay's message is that consequentialist theories are quite capable of explaining duty doctrine.
    • There is a more general critique of consequentialist, or sanction-centered, theories of law that asserts that they are inadequate because they ignore the internal sense of obligation that is perceived by actors in advanced legal systems. See H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (2d ed. 1994). The lack of attention to duty doctrine reflected in the consequentialist approach could be viewed as an important fact supporting this internal-viewpoint critique. Looking from this perspective, this essay's message is that consequentialist theories are quite capable of explaining duty doctrine.
  • 7
    • 33846619517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In particular, duty doctrine provides a link, in the context of negligence law, between the property and liability rules initially identified in Guido Calabresi & A. Douglas Melamed, Property Rules, Liability Rules and Inalienability: One View of the Cathedral, 85 Harv. L. Rev. 1089 (1972).
    • In particular, duty doctrine provides a link, in the context of negligence law, between the property and liability rules initially identified in Guido Calabresi & A. Douglas Melamed, Property Rules, Liability Rules and Inalienability: One View of the Cathedral, 85 Harv. L. Rev. 1089 (1972).
  • 8
    • 33846610840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For discussion, see infra text accompanying notes 21-22.
    • For discussion, see infra text accompanying notes 21-22.
  • 9
    • 33846575493 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Learned Hand formula was articulated by Judge Hand in United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947).
    • The Learned Hand formula was articulated by Judge Hand in United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947).
  • 10
    • 33846601665 scopus 로고
    • For extensive treatments of the traditional economic approach see, note 3, and Steven Shavell, Economic Analysis of Accident Law
    • For extensive treatments of the traditional economic approach see Landes & Posner, supra note 3, and Steven Shavell, Economic Analysis of Accident Law (1987).
    • (1987) supra
    • Landes1    Posner2
  • 11
    • 33846602555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Of course, this should not be taken to mean that it is obvious. Indeed, the economic efficiency rationale was first articulated only thirty years ago. See Richard A. Posner, A Theory of Negligence, 1 J. Legal Stud. 29 1972
    • Of course, this should not be taken to mean that it is obvious. Indeed, the economic efficiency rationale was first articulated only thirty years ago. See Richard A. Posner, A Theory of Negligence, 1 J. Legal Stud. 29 (1972).
  • 13
    • 33846568765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posner, supra note 8;
    • Posner, supra note 8;
  • 14
    • 0002775690 scopus 로고
    • Strict Liability Versus Negligence, 9
    • Steven Shavell, Strict Liability Versus Negligence, 9 J. Legal Stud. 1 (1980).
    • (1980) J. Legal Stud , vol.1
    • Shavell, S.1
  • 15
    • 67949107133 scopus 로고
    • Rule-Based Negligence and the Regulation of Activity Levels, 21
    • For a critique of the Posner-Shavell approach as a theory of the case law, see
    • For a critique of the Posner-Shavell approach as a theory of the case law, see Stephen G. Gilles, Rule-Based Negligence and the Regulation of Activity Levels, 21 J. Legal Stud. 319 (1992).
    • (1992) J. Legal Stud , vol.319
    • Gilles, S.G.1
  • 16
    • 33846629318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This view of the purpose of strict liability was stressed by Judge Posner in Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad v. American Cyanamid Co, 916 F.2d 1174 7th Cir. 1990
    • This view of the purpose of strict liability was stressed by Judge Posner in Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad v. American Cyanamid Co., 916 F.2d 1174 (7th Cir. 1990).
  • 17
    • 33846575494 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Landes & Posner, supra note 3
    • See, e.g., Landes & Posner, supra note 3.
  • 18
    • 0346449876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Theory of Tort Doctrine and the Restatement (Third) of Torts, 54
    • Keith N. Hylton, The Theory of Tort Doctrine and the Restatement (Third) of Torts, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 1413 (2001).
    • (2001) Vand. L. Rev , vol.1413
    • Hylton, K.N.1
  • 19
    • 33846585799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Landes & Posner, supra note 4
    • See generally Landes & Posner, supra note 4.
  • 20
    • 33846632171 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In particular, Holmes apparently did not see a need to relieve actors of a duty of care. See Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., The Theory of Torts, 7 Am. L. Rev. 652, 660 (1873) (endorsing a general duty of all the world to all the world);
    • In particular, Holmes apparently did not see a need to relieve actors of a duty of care. See Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., The Theory of Torts, 7 Am. L. Rev. 652, 660 (1873) (endorsing a general duty of "all the world to all the world");
  • 22
    • 33846590811 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ind. Harbor Belt R.R. Co., 916 F.2d at 1176-77.
    • Ind. Harbor Belt R.R. Co., 916 F.2d at 1176-77.
  • 23
    • 33846631162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also, Landes & Posner, supra note 3, at 107-18, which applies the traditional argument to several cases. It is true that in a case such as blasting, a great risk of harm continues to be imposed on others even when reasonable care is being taken.
    • See also, Landes & Posner, supra note 3, at 107-18, which applies the traditional argument to several cases. It is true that in a case such as blasting, a great risk of harm continues to be imposed on others even when reasonable care is being taken.
  • 24
    • 33846597401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For that reason, the claim that strict liability is appropriate when due care is insufficient seems justifiable. However, there is a residual risk of harm imposed on others in all circumstances of risk-creating conduct-such as driving a car. The theory presented by Landes, Posner, and Shavell implies that strict liability should apply to all such conduct (including automobile use). And the theory runs into difficulty in explaining the negligence rule applied to zoos. See id. at 108. Why should the negligence rule apply in the case of a zoo and strict liability in the case of a private owner of a wild animal?
    • For that reason, the claim that strict liability is appropriate when due care is insufficient seems justifiable. However, there is a residual risk of harm imposed on others in all circumstances of risk-creating conduct-such as driving a car. The theory presented by Landes, Posner, and Shavell implies that strict liability should apply to all such conduct (including automobile use). And the theory runs into difficulty in explaining the negligence rule applied to zoos. See id. at 108. Why should the negligence rule apply in the case of a zoo and strict liability in the case of a private owner of a wild animal?
  • 25
    • 33846619973 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hylton, supra note 12
    • Hylton, supra note 12.
  • 26
    • 0345786133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Missing Markets Theory of Tort Law, 90
    • Keith N. Hylton, A Missing Markets Theory of Tort Law, 90 Nw. U. L. Rev. 977 (1996).
    • (1996) Nw. U. L. Rev , vol.977
    • Hylton, K.N.1
  • 27
    • 33846611767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 984-93
    • Id. at 984-93.
  • 28
    • 33846641948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Of course, the driver may benefit directly from offering rides to coworkers, through reciprocal favors. However, he is unlikely, as a general matter, to value the benefits of offering rides to coworkers as much as the coworkers value those benefits themselves
    • Of course, the driver may benefit directly from offering rides to coworkers, through reciprocal favors. However, he is unlikely, as a general matter, to value the benefits of offering rides to coworkers as much as the coworkers value those benefits themselves.
  • 29
    • 33846575029 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Consider the following unitization rationale. Imagine two firms imposing reciprocal costs of one dollar per month on each other. If the firms merged, would they require a transfer of one dollar, both ways, between the merged units? No, because it would have no effect on the incentives of relevant actors. By the same reasoning, when two actors impose the same costs, imposing strict liability on both would not alter their activity levels from the levels chosen under the negligence rule.
    • Consider the following unitization rationale. Imagine two firms imposing reciprocal costs of one dollar per month on each other. If the firms merged, would they require a transfer of one dollar, both ways, between the merged units? No, because it would have no effect on the incentives of relevant actors. By the same reasoning, when two actors impose the same costs, imposing strict liability on both would not alter their activity levels from the levels chosen under the negligence rule.
  • 30
    • 33846564763 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the case of reciprocal harms, the unitization argument made in note 20 suggests that the activity levels chosen under strict liability will be the same as those chosen under negligence. This implies that there is no need to adopt strict liability in place of negligence in the reciprocal harms setting
    • In the case of reciprocal harms, the unitization argument made in note 20 suggests that the activity levels chosen under strict liability will be the same as those chosen under negligence. This implies that there is no need to adopt strict liability in place of negligence in the reciprocal harms setting.
  • 31
    • 33846638555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Guzzi v. N.Y. Zoological Soc'y, 182 N.Y.S. 257 (App. Div. 1920), aff'd, 135 N.E. 897 (N.Y. 1922);
    • See, e.g., Guzzi v. N.Y. Zoological Soc'y, 182 N.Y.S. 257 (App. Div. 1920), aff'd, 135 N.E. 897 (N.Y. 1922);
  • 32
    • 33846587747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • City of Denver v. Kennedy, 476 P.2d 762 (Colo. Ct. App. 1970), after remand, 506 P.2d 764 (Colo. Ct. App. 1972).
    • City of Denver v. Kennedy, 476 P.2d 762 (Colo. Ct. App. 1970), after remand, 506 P.2d 764 (Colo. Ct. App. 1972).
  • 33
    • 33846635776 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On property rules and liability rules, see generally Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6;
    • On property rules and liability rules, see generally Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6;
  • 34
    • 33748962750 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Keith N. Hylton, Property Rules and Liability Rules, Once Again, 2 Rev. of L. & Econ. 137 (2006), available at http://www.bepress.com/ rle/vol2/iss2/art1;
    • Keith N. Hylton, Property Rules and Liability Rules, Once Again, 2 Rev. of L. & Econ. 137 (2006), available at http://www.bepress.com/ rle/vol2/iss2/art1;
  • 35
    • 0346581482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Property Rules Versus Liability Rules: An Economic Analysis, 109
    • Louis Kaplow & Steven Shavell, Property Rules Versus Liability Rules: An Economic Analysis, 109 Harv. L. Rev. 713 (1996).
    • (1996) Harv. L. Rev , vol.713
    • Kaplow, L.1    Shavell, S.2
  • 36
    • 33846627576 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6, at 1092
    • Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6, at 1092.
  • 37
    • 33846566142 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Turbeville v. Mobile Light & R. Co., 127 So. 519 (Ala. 1930);
    • See, e.g., Turbeville v. Mobile Light & R. Co., 127 So. 519 (Ala. 1930);
  • 38
    • 33846593246 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Buch v. Amory Mfg. Co. 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1898);
    • Buch v. Amory Mfg. Co. 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1898);
  • 39
    • 33846616668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Robert Addie & Sons (Colleries), Ltd. v. Dumbreck, [1929] A.C. 358 (H.L.) (appeal taken from Scot.) (U.K.);
    • Robert Addie & Sons (Colleries), Ltd. v. Dumbreck, [1929] A.C. 358 (H.L.) (appeal taken from Scot.) (U.K.);
  • 41
    • 33846629786 scopus 로고
    • E.g, A.C. at
    • E.g., Robert Addie & Sons, [1929] A.C. at 367.
    • (1929) Addie & Sons , pp. 367
    • Robert1
  • 42
    • 33846579920 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See M'Ilvoy v. Cockran, 9 Ky. 271 (1820); Bird v. Holbrook, (1828) 130 Eng. Rep. 911 (C.P.).
    • See M'Ilvoy v. Cockran, 9 Ky. 271 (1820); Bird v. Holbrook, (1828) 130 Eng. Rep. 911 (C.P.).
  • 43
    • 33846574557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 662 N.E.2d 287 (Ohio 1996).
    • 662 N.E.2d 287 (Ohio 1996).
  • 44
    • 33846649389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1897).
    • 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1897).
  • 45
    • 33846642432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The mill overseer ordered the boy to leave after he had assisted the other employees, in full view of the overseer, for roughly a day and a half. The boy did not leave and was injured soon after being ordered to leave
    • The mill overseer ordered the boy to leave after he had assisted the other employees, in full view of the overseer, for roughly a day and a half. The boy did not leave and was injured soon after being ordered to leave.
  • 46
    • 33846589599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Coblyn v. Kennedy's Inc., 268 N.E.2d 860 (Mass. 1971);
    • See, e.g., Coblyn v. Kennedy's Inc., 268 N.E.2d 860 (Mass. 1971);
  • 47
    • 33846627140 scopus 로고
    • R.I
    • Kirby v. Foster, 22 A. 1111 (R.I. 1891).
    • (1891) Foster, 22 A , pp. 1111
    • Kirby1
  • 48
    • 33846566624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6
    • Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 6.
  • 49
    • 33846567105 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosser, supra note 25, at 426
    • See Prosser, supra note 25, at 426.
  • 50
    • 33846601666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Eckert v. Long Island R.R. Co., 43 N.Y. 502 (1871).
    • See, e.g., Eckert v. Long Island R.R. Co., 43 N.Y. 502 (1871).
  • 51
    • 33846562301 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 52
    • 33846618076 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 506
    • Id. at 506.
  • 53
    • 33846592153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 133 N.E. 437 (N.Y. 1921).
    • 133 N.E. 437 (N.Y. 1921).
  • 54
    • 33846615325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 437-38
    • Id. at 437-38.
  • 55
    • 33846585798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Certainly society behaves as if the social benefits of high-stakes altruism are substantial. See, e.g., Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature 149-50 (1978). Perhaps the reason we reward altruism so consistently is because some level of reciprocal altruism is necessary in a well-functioning society.
    • Certainly society behaves as if the social benefits of high-stakes altruism are substantial. See, e.g., Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature 149-50 (1978). Perhaps the reason we reward altruism so consistently is because some level of reciprocal altruism is necessary in a well-functioning society.
  • 56
    • 33846600255 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The law has so high a regard for human life that it will not impute negligence to an effort to preserve it . . . . Eckert, 43 N.Y. at 506.
    • "The law has so high a regard for human life that it will not impute negligence to an effort to preserve it . . . ." Eckert, 43 N.Y. at 506.
  • 57
    • 33846579921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hackbart v. Cincinnati Bengals, Inc., 601 F.2d 516 (10th Cir. 1979);
    • Hackbart v. Cincinnati Bengals, Inc., 601 F.2d 516 (10th Cir. 1979);
  • 58
    • 33846648329 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nabozny v. Barnhill, 334 N.E.2d 258 (Ill. App. Ct. 1975).
    • Nabozny v. Barnhill, 334 N.E.2d 258 (Ill. App. Ct. 1975).
  • 60
    • 33846573139 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Zelenko v. Gimbel Bros., 287 N.Y.S. 134, 135 (Sup. Ct. 1935);
    • See, e.g., Zelenko v. Gimbel Bros., 287 N.Y.S. 134, 135 (Sup. Ct. 1935);
  • 61
    • 33846568293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Black v. N.Y., N.H. & H.R. Co., 79 N.E. 797 (Mass. 1907).
    • Black v. N.Y., N.H. & H.R. Co., 79 N.E. 797 (Mass. 1907).
  • 62
    • 33846608961 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Summers v. Dominguez, 84 P.2d 237 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1938).
    • See, e.g., Summers v. Dominguez, 84 P.2d 237 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1938).
  • 63
    • 33846593136 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Montgomery v. Nat'1 Convoy & Trucking Co., 195 S.E. 247 (S.C. 1937).
    • See, e.g., Montgomery v. Nat'1 Convoy & Trucking Co., 195 S.E. 247 (S.C. 1937).
  • 64
    • 33846632630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Buch v. Amory Mfg. Co., 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1898).
    • Buch v. Amory Mfg. Co., 44 A. 809 (N.H. 1898).
  • 65
    • 33846599157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 155 A.2d 343 (Pa. 1959).
    • 155 A.2d 343 (Pa. 1959).
  • 66
    • 33846637139 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Another famous troubling application of the rescue rule is Osterlind v. Hill, 160 N.E. 301 (Mass. 1928), in which the defendant rented a canoe to an intoxicated victim, then sat on the dock, equipped with a boat and rope, and watched the victim drown.
    • Another famous troubling application of the rescue rule is Osterlind v. Hill, 160 N.E. 301 (Mass. 1928), in which the defendant rented a canoe to an intoxicated victim, then sat on the dock, equipped with a boat and rope, and watched the victim drown.
  • 67
    • 33846572643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • If the actor's activity imposes a much greater external cost than external benefit, a duty of care is socially desirable too. But in that case, strict liability is also desirable in order to suppress the activity. For this reason, I describe the reciprocal exchange case as a necessary or minimum condition for the imposition of a duty of care.
    • If the actor's activity imposes a much greater external cost than external benefit, a duty of care is socially desirable too. But in that case, strict liability is also desirable in order to suppress the activity. For this reason, I describe the reciprocal exchange case as a necessary or minimum condition for the imposition of a duty of care.
  • 68
    • 33846610841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 19
    • 19 Cal. 4th 925 (1998).
    • (1998) , vol.4 th , Issue.925
    • Cal1
  • 69
    • 33846640380 scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, N.Y.S, Sup. Ct
    • See, e.g., Zelenko v. Gimbel Bros., 287 N.Y.S. 134 (Sup. Ct. 1935).
    • (1935) Gimbel Bros , vol.287 , pp. 134
    • Zelenko1
  • 70
    • 84937317141 scopus 로고
    • Res Ipsa Loquitur and Compliance Error, 142
    • See
    • See Mark F. Grady, Res Ipsa Loquitur and Compliance Error, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 887, 909-12 (1994).
    • (1994) U. Pa. L. Rev , vol.887 , pp. 909-912
    • Grady, M.F.1
  • 71
    • 0006850827 scopus 로고
    • In Defense of Caveat Emptor, 38
    • See
    • See James M. Buchanan, In Defense of Caveat Emptor, 38 U. Chi. L. Rev. 64 (1970).
    • (1970) U. Chi. L. Rev , vol.64
    • Buchanan, J.M.1
  • 72
    • 33846613516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 461 P.2d 145 (Kan. 1969).
    • 461 P.2d 145 (Kan. 1969).
  • 73
    • 33846634461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 146
    • Id. at 146.
  • 74
    • 33846603007 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 569 N.E.2d 637 (Ind. 1991).
    • 569 N.E.2d 637 (Ind. 1991).
  • 75
    • 33846623131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Richard Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts 582 (7th ed. 2000)
    • Richard Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts 582 (7th ed. 2000)
  • 76
    • 33846642908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ross, 308
    • N.H. 1973, citi
    • (citing Sargent v. Ross, 308 A.2d 528, 531 (N.H. 1973)).
    • A.2d , vol.528 , pp. 531
    • ng Sargent1
  • 77
    • 33846620430 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Point B in Figure 1 assumes there are insubstantial externalized risks and benefits, while point A assumes there are no externalized risks or benefits. Either would fit as a description of this case.
    • Point B in Figure 1 assumes there are insubstantial externalized risks and benefits, while point A assumes there are no externalized risks or benefits. Either would fit as a description of this case.
  • 78
    • 33846617114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 439 F.2d 477 (D.C. Cir. 1970).
    • 439 F.2d 477 (D.C. Cir. 1970).
  • 79
    • 33846582221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 481
    • Id. at 481.
  • 80
    • 0043040771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Theory of Minimum Contract Terms, with Implications for Labor Law, 74
    • For a more general statement of this contracting problem, see
    • For a more general statement of this contracting problem, see Keith N. Hylton, A Theory of Minimum Contract Terms, with Implications for Labor Law, 74 Tex. L. Rev. 1742, 1756-63 (1996).
    • (1996) Tex. L. Rev , vol.1742 , pp. 1756-1763
    • Hylton, K.N.1
  • 81
    • 33846570748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early behavioral experiments by B.F. Skinner suggested that subjects learn the connection between action and reward (or punishment) through repeated interaction. B.F. Skinner, Science and Human Behavior (1953). Crime is an example of a punishment that occurs randomly and infrequently in response to failures to guard against it. Potential victims are unlikely to accurately estimate, or act as if they had accurately estimated, the likelihood of crime occurring.
    • Early behavioral experiments by B.F. Skinner suggested that subjects learn the connection between action and reward (or punishment) through repeated interaction. B.F. Skinner, Science and Human Behavior (1953). Crime is an example of a punishment that occurs randomly and infrequently in response to failures to guard against it. Potential victims are unlikely to accurately estimate, or act as if they had accurately estimated, the likelihood of crime occurring.
  • 82
    • 33846605372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 162 N.E. 99 (N.Y. 1928).
    • 162 N.E. 99 (N.Y. 1928).
  • 83
    • 33846646310 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Hylton, supra note 12
    • See Hylton, supra note 12.
  • 84
    • 33846647293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 275 U.S. 303 1927
    • 275 U.S. 303 (1927).
  • 86
    • 0002692296 scopus 로고
    • Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99
    • See
    • See Ian Ayres and Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 Yale L.J. 87 (1989);
    • (1989) Yale L.J , vol.87
    • Ayres, I.1    Gertner, R.2
  • 87
    • 0000949337 scopus 로고
    • Information and the Scope of Liability for Breach of Contract: The Rule of Hadley v. Baxendale, 7
    • Lucian Ayre Bebchuk and Steven Shavell, Information and the Scope of Liability for Breach of Contract: The Rule of Hadley v. Baxendale, 7 J.L. Econ. & Org. 284 (1991).
    • (1991) J.L. Econ. & Org , vol.284
    • Ayre Bebchuk, L.1    Shavell, S.2
  • 88
    • 33846587748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 159 N.E. 896 (N.Y. 1928).
    • 159 N.E. 896 (N.Y. 1928).
  • 89
    • 33846599608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Restatement (Second) of Torts § 324A provides, One who undertakes, gratuitously or for consideration, to render services to another which he should recognize as necessary for the protection of a third person or his things, is subject to liability to the third person for physical harm resulting from his failure to exercise reasonable care to protect his undertaking, if (a) his failure to exercise reasonable care increases the risk of such harm, or (b) he has undertaken to perform a duty owed by the other to the third person, or (c) the harm is suffered because of reliance of the other or the third person upon the undertaking. Restatement (Second) of Torts § 324A (1964).
    • The Restatement (Second) of Torts § 324A provides, One who undertakes, gratuitously or for consideration, to render services to another which he should recognize as necessary for the protection of a third person or his things, is subject to liability to the third person for physical harm resulting from his failure to exercise reasonable care to protect his undertaking, if (a) his failure to exercise reasonable care increases the risk of such harm, or (b) he has undertaken to perform a duty owed by the other to the third person, or (c) the harm is suffered because of reliance of the other or the third person upon the undertaking. Restatement (Second) of Torts § 324A (1964).
  • 90
    • 33846619971 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an interesting duty case raising similar market-allocation issues, see Great Central Insurance Co. v. Insurance Services Office, Inc, 74 F.3d 778 7th Cir. 1996, In Great Central Insurance, then-Chief Judge Posner wrote the following: If a person injures another, through culpable conduct such as negligence, why should not the innocent victim be able to shift his loss to the culpable injurer? There is no altogether satisfactory answer to this question, but it is obvious that the law recoils from the full implications of it, Considerations of policy, have persuaded the courts of all states to place limits on the scope of tort liability through the concept of duty. The same considerations are in play here, To subject [the defendant] to unlimited liability for the consequence of, mistakes might be to jeopardize [the defendant's] existence or make [him] unduly timid about proposing less than astronomical rates
    • For an interesting duty case raising similar market-allocation issues, see Great Central Insurance Co. v. Insurance Services Office, Inc., 74 F.3d 778 (7th Cir. 1996). In Great Central Insurance, then-Chief Judge Posner wrote the following: If a person injures another . . . through culpable conduct such as negligence, why should not the innocent victim be able to shift his loss to the culpable injurer? There is no altogether satisfactory answer to this question, but it is obvious that the law recoils from the full implications of it. . . . [Considerations of policy . . . have persuaded the courts of all states to place limits on the scope of tort liability through the concept of duty. The same considerations are in play here. . . . To subject [the defendant] to unlimited liability for the consequence of . . . mistakes might be to jeopardize [the defendant's] existence or make [him] unduly timid about proposing less than astronomical rates . . . .
  • 91
    • 33846619972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 785
    • Id. at 785.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.