Presidents as Punakawan: Portrayal of national leaders as clown-servants in Central Javanese Wayang

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 213-233

  Pausacker, Helen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ART; LEADERSHIP;

ASIA; EURASIA; GREATER SUNDA ISLANDS; JAVA; MALAY ARCHIPELAGO; SOUTHEAST ASIA; SUNDA ISLES;

EID: 33846085468     PISSN: 00224634     EISSN: 14740680     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022463404000128     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. On the pre-colonial era see Ward Keeler, Javanese shadow plays, Javanese selves (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 170. Laurie J. Sears, Shadows of empire: Colonial discourse and Javanese tales (Durham/London: Duke University Press, 1996), p. 136 mentions the colonial period. 'Wayang in this article is used to describe Javanese wayang kulit or shadow puppets, unless otherwise indicated; in some contexts it also refers to the characters from this dramatic form as portrayed in other media. Except for direct quotes, Javanese names and terms are written in the New Spelling introduced in the 1970s, except for 'Soekarno' and 'Soeharto'.
2. An overview of these new forms is in Benedict R. O'G. Anderson, 'Notes on contemporary Indonesian political communication", Indonesia, 16 (1973): 39-80.
3. See, for example, Victoria Clara van Groenendael, The dalang behind the wayang (Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 1985); Bambang Murtiyoso, 'Faktor-faktor pendukung popularitas dalang' (S.2. thesis, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1995); Fredrik deBoer, 'Pak Rajeg's life in art', The Drama Review, 23, 2 (1979): 57-62; Suratno et al., Penulisan biografi Nyi Njatatjarita (Surakarta: Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, 1993); Helen Pausacker, 'Nyi Suharni Sabdawati - a portrait of a woman dhalang', AIA [Australian Indonesian Association] Journal (June 1982): 8-9. The word can be spelled either dhalang (Javanese) or dalang (Indonesian). I have chosen the former, although the latter appears in quotes and titles in this article. Likewise, I use Javanese spellings for names such as Pandhawa, Gathutkaca and Srikandhi.
4. See, for example, Jan Mrázek, 'Phenomenology of a puppet theater: Contemplations on the performance technique of contemporary Javanese wayang kulit (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1998); Helen Pausacker, Behind the shadows: Understanding a wayang performance (Melbourne: Indonesian Arts Society, 1996); Robert Petersen, 'The role of the raksasa: An interview with Pak Asep Sunanda, dalang of wayang golek purwa', The Drama Review, 35, 2 (1991): 129-37.
5. See, for example, Kathy Foley, 'The Sundanese wayang golek. The rod puppet theatre of West Java" (Ph.D. diss., University of Hawai'i, 1979); Suyanto, 'Wayang malangan: Background, performers and performance' (M.A. thesis, University of Sydney, 1996); Rene T. A. Lysloff, 'Srikandhi dances Lengger: A performance of music and shadow theater in Banyumas (West Central Java)' (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1990); Victoria M. Clara van Groenendael, 'Potéhi, the Chinese glove-puppet theatre in East Java', in Performance in Java and Bali: Studies of narrative, theatre, music and dance, ed. Ben Arps (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1993), pp. 11-33; B. Soelarto and S. Ilmi Albiladiyah, Wayang Cina-Jawa di Yogyakarta (Jakarta: Proyek Media Kebudayaan Jakarta, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1980/81); Mary Sabina Zurbuchen, The language of Balinese shadow theater (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
6. Benedict R. O'G. Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance of the Javanese (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project, 1965); Ruth McVey, 'The wayang controversy in Indonesian Communism', in Context, meaning and power in Southeast Asia, ed. Mark Hobart and Robert H. Taylor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1986), pp. 21-51.
7. James R. Brandon, On thrones of gold: Three Javanese shadow plays (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 18-19 (quotation on p. 19).
8. See comments in Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, p. 75.
9. Claire Holt describes lakon sempalan as 'completely independent creations in which only the names of the well-known heroes, their salient characteristics, and familial relationships are borrowed from the original myths, but none of the situations, intrigues, or adventures resemble anything found in the Javanese versions of the Indian epics or the old Javanese legends'; Claire Holt, Art in Indonesia: Continuities and change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967), p. 138. There are a number of names for, and considerable debate over, the different types of lakon - lakon pokok or 'main story' and lakon carangan or 'branch story', both of which I am defining as 'established lakon for the purpose of this article. See Alan Feinstein, 'Pendahuluan', in Alan Feinstein et al., Lakon carangan (Surakarta: Akademi Seni Karawitan Indonesia, 1986), vol. I, pp. xvii-xxxiii, with definitions on p. 188; and Sears, Shadows of empire, pp. 170-213.
10. This lack of adherence to strict interpretations of wayang characters is also very evident in literature, but I have concentrated less on this, as the topic has been dealt with in Marshall Clark's excellent studies. See Marshall Clark, 'Star Wars: Obi-Wan Wiranto? Princess Megawati or Sultan Yoda?', Inside Indonesia, 60 (1999): 25-6; Clark, 'Shadow-boxing: Indonesian writers and the Ranmyana in the New Order', Indonesia, 72 (2001): 8-10; and Clark, "'Smells of something like Postmodernism": Emha Ainun Nadjib's rewriting of the Mahabharata', in Clearing a space: Postcolonial readings of modern Indonesian literature, ed. Keith Foulcher and Tony Day (Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 2002), pp. 273-92.
11. John Pemberton, On the subject of 'Java' (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), front cover and frontispiece. Anderson's comment is in Mythology and the tolerance, p. 24. On Arjuna see also Anderson, pp. 11 and 13 and Pak Hardjowirogo, Sedjarah wayang purwa (Jakarta: PN Balai Pustaka, 1965), pp. 123, 140-5.
12. See J. J. Ras, 'The historical development of the Javanese shadow theatre', Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs [henceforth RIMA], 10, 2 (1976): 67; R. M. Sajid, Bauwarna wayang (wewaton kawruh bab wajang): Kaklempakanipun warni-warnining wajang mawi katrangan saha rinengga ing gambar-gambar (Jogjakarta: P.T. Pertjetakan Republik Indonesia, 1958), pp. 65-9; Pausacker, Behind the shadows, p. 29.
13. Robert B. Cribb and Colin Brown, Modern Indonesia: A history since 1945 (London and New York: Longman, 1995), pp. 82-96; Gregory Bruce Clancy, A dictionary of Indonesian history since 1900 (Sydney: Sunda Publications, 1992), pp. 66-7, 185-91.
14. Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, p. 28; Pausacker, Behind the shadows, p. 41.
15. See 'Ki Warseno dan Ki Manteb paparkan ajaran Bung Karno', Suara Merdeka [henceforth SM], 2 June 2001 and 'Wayang sableng dalam "Gathutkaca Gugur"', SM,12 June 2001. Sears, Shadows of empire, p. 221, discusses Soekarno's links with specific wayang characters.
16. Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, pp. 15-16.
17. Sears, Shadows of empire, pp. 220, 226-30; G. J. Resink, 'From the old Mahabharata - to the new Ramayana-Order, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, land- en Volkenkunde, 131 (1975): 218-36; Clark, 'Star Wars', pp. 25-6. The quotation is from Peter Christian Hauswedell, 'Sukarno: Radical or conservative? Indonesian politics 1964-5', Indonesia, 5 (1973): 108-43.
18. On Semar see Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, pp. 22-3; R. Soetarno, Ensiklopedia wayang (Semarang: Dahara Prize, 1987), pp. 263-4; Keeler, Javanese shadow plays, pp. 210-11. On Semar as dlanyang see Keeler, pp. 109-10.
19. For example, Soeharto has frequently been portrayed as Rama, the hero of the Ramayana; Pemberton, On the subject of 'Java', p. 307 and Clark, 'Shadow-boxing', pp. 8-10.
20. Van Groenendael, Dalang behind the wayang, p. 140. For a summary of the violence see Cribb and Brown, Modern Indonesia, pp. 102-6.
21. Van Groenendael, Dalang behind the wayang, pp. 139-51 and Andrew N. Weintraub, 'Contest-ing culture: Sundanese wayang golek purwa competitions in New Order Indonesia', Asian Theatre Journal, 18, 1 (2001): 8, note 3.
22. Helen Pausacker, 'Wignyosoetarno's Makutharama: An annotated translation with an introduction and comparison of different versions of the Makutharama lakoit (M.A. thesis, Monash University, 1994), p. 25; van Groenendael, Dalang behind the wayang, pp. 154-5.
23. Barbara Hatley, 'Foreword', in Pausacker, Behind the shadows, p. 7.
24. On Supersemar see Cribb and Brown, Modern Indonesia, p. 110. The Soeharto-Semar association is also mentioned in Resink, 'From the old Mahabharata'', p. 222 and Clark, 'Star Wars', p. 26. Clark draws attention to an article entitled 'Semar Super' in Jawa Pos, 6 Sept. 1998 (four months after Soeharto had resigned) which reversed not just the name Supersemar but the portrayal of Semar/Soeharto, showing him as 'a thoroughly corrupt, nepotistic and power-hungry tyrant who is directly responsible for much of the social and political injustices perpetrated on the people of Karang Kedempel (read: Indonesia) for the last thirty-two years' (Clark, 'Smells of something', p. 281).
25. McVey, 'Wayang controversy', pp. 30, 34. The quote is from Sakirman, Wayang purwa: Asal-usul dan perkembangannya (Jakarta: Bagian Penerbitan Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat, 1961), p. 45. However, the PKI also associated themselves with the Pandhawa nobility; a senior PKI leader, Sudisman, referred to the principal members of its Standing Committee - himself, Aidit, Njoto, Lukman and Sakirman - as the five Pandhawa (McVey, p. 1). Arjuna's arrow Pasopati was sometimes shown as having a hammer-and-sickle insignia (Holt, Art in Indonesia, p. 125).
26. Stefan Eklöf, Indonesian politics in crisis: The long fall of Suharto, 1996-98 (Copenhagen: NIAS, 1999), p. 9. Teater Koma also performed a play entitled Suksesi ('Succession') about this issue; Michael H. Bodden, 'Teater Koma's Suksesi and Indonesia's New Order', Asian Theatre Journal, 14, 2 (1997): 259-81; and 'Teater Koma and cultural crisis', in Indonesian Heritage, 〈http://www.indonesianheritage.com/ Encyclopedia/Language_and_Literature/Past_And_Future/Teater_Koma/teater_koma. html〉
27. Sears, Shadows of empire, p. 234, quoting 'Pesan-pesan Pak Harto pada Ki Dalang: Ajarkan pengenalan diri dan sifat kodrati', Kompas, 23 Jan. 1995.
28. The outline of this lakon is compiled from a number of sources: 'Pesan-pesan Pak Harto'; 'Semar "mbabar" jati diri', Kompas, 26 Jan. 1995; 'Parikesit mencari Semar', Kompas, 12 Feb. 1995; 'Semar mbabar jati diri', Kompas, 16 May 1995; 'Menko polkam: Wayang tumbuh dari akal Budi Indonesia', Kompas, 15 July 1995; '"Sanggit", refleksi krisis Indonesia', Kompas, 27 Mar. 1998; Bambang Murtiyoso, 'Semar mbabar wahyu jatidhiri', programme notes for performance by Ki R. Ng. Wignyo Manteb Soedharsono for Festival Greget Dalang '95, Pergelaran ke-51, Minggu Kliwon, 3 Sept. 1995; Dwitri Waluyo, 'Dalang: Belajar demokrasi ala Semar', Gatra, 1, 19 (25 Mar. 1995): 36.
29. Ibid., p. 36. For details of Taman Mini see Pemberton, On the subject of 'Java, pp. 152-61; Shelly Errington, 'The cosmic theme park of the Javanese', RIMA, 31, 1 (1997): 7-35 and Timothy C. Lindsey, 'Concrete ideology: Taste, tradition and the Javanese past in New Order public space", in Culture and society in New Order Indonesia, ed. Virginia Matheson Hooker (Kuala Lumpur and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 166-82. For a description of the Purna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum, see Pam Allen, The Suharto Museum', Inside Indonesiato, 68 (2001): 17-18.
30. The lakon's title varied slightly depending on the dhalang and whether it was quoted in Javanese or Indonesian. I have used the titles as they were written in the individual sources.
31. Waluyo, 'Dalang: Belajar demokrasi', p. 36; the quotation is from Murtiyoso, 'Semar mbabar wahyu jatidhiri'.
32. See, for example, Semar mesem ('Semar smiles'), described in Sujiwo Tejo, 'Demokrasi Semar, catatan Februari', Kompas, 26 Feb. 1997.
33. This play is further discussed in Clark, 'Smells of something', pp. 280-1. The script of the play is in N. Riantiarno, Semar gugat (Yogyakarta: Yayasan Bentang Budaya, 1995). See also Noorca M. Massardi, 'Semangat menggugat rakyat-pejabat', Forum Keadilan, 4, 18 (18 Dec. 1995): 111. Bathara Guru is mentioned in Hardjowirogo, Sedjarah wayang purwa, pp. 22-4.
34. Clark, 'Star Wars', p. 26, also mentions literary works by Putu Wijaya, Seno Gumira, Ajidarma, Emha Ainun, Nadjib, Danarto and Sindhunata as 'rescuing' Semar in the 1990s and placing him 'back amongst his own kind, the Indonesian masses'.
35. See 'Semar kuncung', 24 May 2000. 〈http:gusdurnet.tripod.com/ politik/0500/000524a-semar.htm〉. In a Cirebon ritual wayang performance of Barikan, Semar is advised that he should pluck a hair from his forelock and rub his eyes with it, in order to see the invisible; Matthew Isaac Cohen, 'Details, details: Methodological issues and practical considerations in a study of Barikan, a Cirebonese ritual drama for wayang kulit', Oideion: Performing Arts Online, 3 (July 1999), 〈http://www.iias.nl/ oideion/journal/issue03/cohen2/html〉. See below for other lakon in which Semar's forelock is stolen.
36. In wayang terminology this is used for the composing of a story line, as opposed, for example to sabetan, the moving of the puppets. In the Indonesian language, however, the word means 'argument' or describes other types of friction - the rubbing together of two hard objects (such as tree branches or the gnashing/grinding of teeth).
37. Marshall Clark, 'Cultural activism in the sunset of New Order Indonesia', Indonesian Studies Newsletter (Asian Studies Association of Australia), 24 (June 1998): 5; '"Sanggit", refleksi krisis'; 'Pentas tari "Sanggit": Semar mengatasi krisis meskipun dikritik', Kompas, 14 Apr. 1998.
38. For further detail, see Barbara Hatley, 'Lightning!', Inside Indonesia, 58 (1998): 27-8.
39. Dewi Fortuna Anwar, 'The Habibie presidency', in Post-Soeharto Indonesia: Renewal or chaos?, ed. Geoff Forrester (Canberra: Australian National University Indonesia Assessment, 1998), p. 44.
40. I was unable to find any clear statements about his favourite character, or whom he identified with.
41. Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, p. 43.
42. I Nyoman Murtana, Lakon Gareng dadi dewa: Sebuah tinjauan sosiologis (laporan penelitian mandiri) (Surakarta: Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, 1999); quotation from p. 29.
43. Kuntowijoyo, 'Politisasi, komersialisasi, dan otonomi budaya', Kompas, 28 Oct. 1999.
44. No wayang figures, however, were used in Lidah pingsan. For further discussion of these performances see Hatley, 'Lightning!'; Barbara Hatley, 'Cultural expression and social transformation in Indonesia', in Reformasi: Crisis and change in Indonesia, ed. Arief Budiman et al. (Melbourne: Monash Asia Institute, 1999), pp. 275-82; and Clark, 'Star Wars'.
45. Greg Fealy, 'Islamic politics: A rising or declining force?', in Kingsbury and Budiman, eds., Indonesia: The uncertain transition, pp. 122-3.
46. Greg Barton, Abdurrahman Wahid: Muslim democrat, Indonesian President (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2002), p. 385 (kasar) and Barton, 'Gus Dur "well equipped" to lead Indonesia to democracy', Jakarta Post [henceforth JP], 3 Mar. 2000 (unpretentious style). For other such comparisons see, for example, the view of Dr Sindhunata, as quoted in Tejo, 'Demokrasi semar' and Barton, 'Evaluating the Wahid Presidency: A response to Marcus Mietzner's evaluation", in Kingsbury and Budiman, eds., Indonesia: The uncertain transition, p. 352.
47. Timothy Lindsey, personal communication.
48. 'Gus Dur nonton Semar bangun khayangan", Surya Online, 17 Apr. 2001. Buloggate concerned a scandal over Yanatera, the foundation of the employees of Bulog, the State Logistics Agency. There has been debate about whether or not Gus Dur was involved in the scandal. 'Bruneigate' involved Gus Dur's acceptance (outside government channels) of a personal donation of US$2 million from the Sultan of Brunei for humanitarian aid in Aceh.
49. 'Gus Dur nonton Semar'. This lakon is said to have been created by Anom Suroto in the New Order period and to have involved a story in which Heaven is destroyed and then rebuilt (Sears, Text and performance, p. 146). This may or may not be the case. I first saw this lakon performed by Ki Pringgosutoto on 24 July 1976, when Anom Suroto was only 28 years old.
50. M. Dwi Marianto, 'Teasing and sympathy in paintings of Gus Dur', JP, 15 Feb. 2001.
51. A. A. Kunto A., 'Saresehan: Semar membuat penonton terpingkal-pingkal', Basis: Majalah Kebudayaan Umum, 48, 9-10 (1999): 25-7.
52. Tim Lindsey, 'Megawati steps out from father's shadow', Australian Financial Review, 24 (2001): 55.
53. 'Ketika Soeharto memposisikan diri sebagai Semar, tidak ada yang berani mengontrolnya. Tentara saja ditaklukkan. Logika ini berbahaya bagi demokrasi karena tidak pernah ada tawar menawar' (Kunto, 'Saresehan', p. 27). Whereas Petruk dadi Ratu is a well-known lakon, Semar jadi (or dadi) Ratu is less well known, if indeed it exists at all - I was unable to find any other references to this play. There is some possibility that Kunto is not referring to an already existing lakon, but that this is simply a description of Soeharto's rule.
54. Holt, Art in Indonesia, p. 135.
55. 'Gus Dur janji tak tinggalkan Mega', Sriwijaya Post http://www.indomedia.com/sripo/2005/22/22tin.htm, 22 May 2000. A summary of the lakon is in 'Semar kuncung: Suatu pertanda?', 24 May 2000, http://gusdurnet.tripod.com/politik/0500/000524a-semar.htm.
56. Ibid.
57. Anderson, Mythology and the tolerance, p. 44.
58. J. Kats, De wajang poerwa: Een vorm van Javaans toneel (Dordrecht/Cinnaminson, NJ: Foris Publications, 1984 reprint), pp. 392-3.
59. I presume this is the song 'Pengamat Independen' (Independent observers) found in the published text of the lakon, though there may have been slight alterations in the performance so it could better match the tune; N. Riantiarno, Republik Bagong: Sandiwara Teater Koma (Yogyakarta: Galang Press, 2001), p. 181.
60. Riantiarno, Republik Bagong, p. 182.
61. Oei Eng Goan, '"Republik Bagong" reflects our sociopolitical turmoil', JP, 5 May 2001 and Lauren Bain, personal communication.
62. Riantiarno, Republik Bagong, p. 46.
63. 'Republik Bagong' (programme notes) (Jakarta: Teater Koma, 2001).
64. Yusuf Susilo Hartono, "'Wayang orang humor" staged amid humorless crisis', JP, 8 Apr. 2001; Devi Asmarani, 'Satire on President: Abdurrahman shows he has a funny bone', Straits Times, 9 May 2001.
65. See 'Pentas keliling Teater Koma', SM, 18 June 2001; '"Kala" Teater Koma sihir penonton kudus', SM, 19 June 2001; '"Kala" tak lagi patriot: Bentuk keletihan Teater Koma', SM, 22 June 2001 and 'Koma mengemas berita menjadi hiburan segar", SM, 2 Oct. 2001. The projected trilogy is mentioned in 'Teater Koma back on stage', JP, 27 Apr. 2001.
66. Thanks to Lauren Bain for this observation.
67. 'GPH dipokusumo selapah nanggap wayang "Suksesi"', SM, 31 July 2001. In 2001, Sri Susuhunan Paku Buwono XII was 78 years old.
68. 'Ki Djoko: Presiden agar berfilsafat tawon madu', SM, 30 Aug. 2001.
69. 'Kelakar manis-manis pedas sujiwa: Jika jadi Presiden akan sifat kemunafikan', SM, 7 Sept. 2001.
70. Hersri Setiawan, 'Salah kaprah (3): Limbuk dan ihwal sekitarnya', dctakanalisis.com, 31 Aug. 2002. For the more traditional description of Limbuk see Hardjowirogo, Sedjarah wayang purwa, p. 258 and Soetarno, Ensiklopedia wayang, p. 197.
71. Limbuk's singlehood is mentioned in Hardjowirogo, Sedjarah wayang purwa, p. 258. For more recent interpretations see Murtana, Lakon Gareng dadi dewa and Helen Pausacker, 'Limbuk breaks out: Changes in the kadhatonan over the last century", in Puppet theater in contemporary Indonesia: New approaches to performance-events, ed. Jan Mrázek (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 2002), pp. 284-95.
72. Hersri Setiawan, 'Salah kaprah'.
73. Hartono, 'Wayang orang humor'.