Traditional Navajo maps and wayfinding

American Indian Culture and Research Journal

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 85-111

  Kelley, Klara ^a   Francis, Harris ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33846027450     PISSN: 01616463     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17953/aicr.29.2.hnj6880303q25wh0     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. See, for example, Hugh Brody, Maps and Dreams: Indians and the British Columbia Frontier (1981; repr. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1998);
2. Pedro de Castaneda et al., The Journey of Coronado, trans. George Parker Winship (trans. 1933; repr. New York: Dover, 1990);
3. Richard E. Hughes and James A. Bennyhoff, "Early Trade," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, ed. Warren L. D'Azevedo, 238-55 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986) ;
4. J. Charles Kelley, "The Mobile Merchants of Molino," in Ripples in the Chichimec Sea, eds. Frances Joan Mathien and Randall H. McGuire, 81-97 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986);
5. Mark Warhus, Another America: Native American Maps and the History of Our Land (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1997).
6. American Heritage Dictionary, 3rd ed., s.v. "map."
7. Elizabeth Hill Boone, Stories in Red and Black: Pictorial Histories of the Aztecs and Mixtecs (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000).
8. J. B. Harley, preface to The History of Cartography Volume One: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, ed. J. B. Harley and David Woodward (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
9. Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (New York and London: The Guilford Press, 1992), 1.
10. On cognitive maps in general, see Roger M. Downs and David Stea, eds., Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior (Chicago: Aldine, 1973).
11. For examples of Native American place-name studies, see Keith H. Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996);
12. William Bright, ed., "Native American Geographic Names," special issue, Names: A Journal of Onomastics 44, no. 8 (1996);
13. James Kari, "Names as Signs: The Distribution of 'Stream' and 'Mountain' in Alaskan Athabaskan Languages," in Athabaskan Language Studies: Essays in Honor of Robert W. Young, eds. Eloise Jelinek, Sally Midgette, Keren Rice, and Leslie Saxon, 464 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996).
14. G. Malcolm Lews, "The Indigenous Maps and Mapping of North American Indians," The Map Collector 9 (1979): 25-32;
15. G. Malcolm Lews, ed., Cartographic Encounters: Perspective on Native American Mapmaking and Map Use (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) ;
16. Garrick Mallory, Picture Writings of the American Indians (1893; repr. New York: Dover, 1972);
17. Warhus, Another America;
18. David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis, eds., Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies, vol. 2, bk. 3, The History of Cartography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
19. Exceptions for North America include A. Irving Hallowell, "Cultural Factors in Spatial Orientation," in Symbolic Anthropology: A Reader in the Study of Symbols and Meanings, eds. Janet L. Dolgin, David S. Kemnitzer, and David M. Schneider, 131-50 (1955; repr. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977);
20. Frank Hill, "The Hills on the Telaquana Trail," Sharing Our Pathways 9, no. 4 (2004): 1-3.
21. Wood, The Power of Maps.
22. For an example of a verbal map that construct trails, see Mischa Titiev, "A Hopi Salt Expedition," American Anthropologist 39, no. 2 (1937): 244-58.
23. For an example of a verbal map that constructs hunting territories, see Carobeth Laird, The Chemehuevis (Banning, CA: Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation, 1976).
24. For examples of verbal maps that construct large physiographic zones, especially by representing them metaphorically as human or animal anatomy, see Washington Matthews, Navaho Legends (1897; repr. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1992), 113-16;
25. Jay Scott Williams, "A Use of Navajo Metaphor and Metonymy in Conjunction with the Landscape: Oral Cartography" (master's thesis, University of New Mexico, 2000).
26. For examples of studies of Navajo traditional geography, see Stephen C. Jett, "An Analysis of Navajo Place-Names," Names 18, no. 3 (1970): 175-84;
27. Stephen C. Jett, "Place-Naming, Environment, and Perception among the Canyon de Chelly Navajo of Arizona," The Professional Geographer 49, no. 4 (1997): 481-93;
28. Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Abalone Shell Buffalo People" New Mexico Historical Review 78, no. 1 (2003): 29-58.
29. Berard Haile, "Origin Legend of the Navaho Enemy Way," Yale University Publications in Anthropology 17 (1938), 137-39.
30. The plant identified in the source (Haile, "Origin Legend," 38) does not normally grow at the altitude of this place.
31. For examples of larger myths that include the monster-slaying stories, see Aileen O'Bryan, The Diné: Origin Myths of the Navaho Indians (1956; repr. New York: Dover, 1993);
32. Stanley Fishler, "In the Beginning: A Navajo Creation Myth," University of Utah Anthropological Papers 13 (1953);
33. Matthews, Navaho Legends;
34. Franc J. Newcomb and Gladys Reichard, Sandpaintings of the Navajo Shooting Chant (1937; repr. New York: Dover, 1975);
35. Mary C. Wheelwright, Myth of Wilaa-Chee-ji Deginnh Keygo Hatral and Myth of Natohe Bakaji Hatral (Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, 1958) ;
36. Leland C. Wyman, Blessingway (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1970).
37. See, for example, Hasteen Klah, Navaho Creation Myth (Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, 1942), 69-72.
38. Matthews, Navaho Legends.
39. This story episode has more than just a map, of course. Traveling Rock struck by Monster Slayer's club suggests the pair of Corn Deity (a rounded cone of rock or other material) and Chamahia (the Puebloan name for the kind of ceremonial siltstone club that Monster Slayer uses; as neighbors to Navajos, Puebloans share with Navajos many ceremonial stories, iconography, paraphernalia, and practices); see Charlotte Frisbie, Navajo Medicine Bundles or Jish: Acquisition, Transmission, and Disposition in the Past and Present (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987), 61-62, 65;
40. Theodore Frisbie, "An Archaeo-Ethnological Interpretation of Maize Deity Symbolism in the Greater Southwest" (PhD diss., Southern Illinois University, 1971).
41. Corn Mountain struck by lightning is also a Mesoamerican myth with deep pre-Columbian roots; see John Bierhorst, trans., History and Mythology of the Aztecs: The Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992), 146-47;
42. Stephen Taggert, Nahua Myth and Social Structure (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983), 211, 214-16;
43. Dennis Tedlock, trans., Popol Vuh, rev. ed. of 1985 trans. (NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 139-40.
44. In the context of war ceremonialism, these icons seem to evoke an attack on an agricultural stronghold. But Navajo war ceremonies themselves also encourage summer rain, and thereby enhance agricultural fertility. Like the other monster-slaying stories, this story hints at a lost meaning of ceremonial iconoclasm such as occurred at ends of years and long calendar cycles in Mesoamerica, according to Fray Bernardo de Sahagun (The Sun, Moon, and Stars, and the Binding of the Years, bk. 7, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, trans. A. J. Anderson and C. E. Dibble, trans. of 1569 ed., 25 [Ogden: University of Utah Press, 1953]).
45. Mesoamerica shares much indigenous ceremonialism, iconography, and mythic motifs with the US Southwest, according to Gordon Brotherston (Book of the Fourth World: Reading the Native Americas through Their Literature [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994], 97-102). Also in keeping with the rainmaking theme is the iconography in the story surrounding the footprint at the fourth bounce of the rock-the zigzag lightning arrow, the cloud with cooling rain. This story element may refer to the ceremonial practice of administering cloud or rain medicine - cooling medicine sprinkled on the patient with an aspergill or sprayed from the ceremonial practitioner's mouth.
46. See Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, Navajo Sacred Places (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 21-22, 49, and works cited therein.
47. Berard Haile, "'The Story of the Ethnologic Dictionary,' by Father Berard Haile," app. 2 in Tales of an Endishodi, ed. Fr. Murray Bodo, OFM (1948; repr. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998).
48. Haile, "'The Story of the Ethnologic Dictionary.'" According to William H. Lyon ("Ednishodi Yazhe: The Little Priest and the Understanding of Navajo Culture," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 11, no. 1 [1987]: 27, 40n82), early in 1930 (the year Haile and Slim Curley recorded the story),
49. Sapir's protege Harry Hoijer sent Haile "Herzog's machine," presumably the wax-cylinder phonograph that folklorist George Herzog recommended for field use as late as 1936, according to Erika Brady (A Spiral Way: How the Phonograph Changed Ethnography [Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1999], 25, 52-88, 122).
50. The cylinders could be shaved and reused (Brady, A Spiral Way, 212).
51. West of the westernmost cairn, the line meets the zone where the Little Colorado and Colorado Rivers join, a zone with emergence iconography and stories for Navajos, Hopis, Zunis, and Western Apaches (see Harold Courlander, ed., The Fourth World of the Hopis [New York: Thomas Crown, 1971], 14, 30, 58;
52. T. J. Ferguson and Richard Hart, Zuni Atlas [Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986], 20-21, 126;
53. Fishier, "In the Beginning," 85-88;
54. Klah, Navaho Creation Myth, 69-72;
55. Jack Forbes, "The Early Western Apache," Journal of the West 5, no. 3 [1966], 343;
56. Grenville Goodwin, Social Organization of the Western Apache [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942], 607, 628;
57. Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Navajo Sacred Landscape in the Lower Little Colorado: Its Significance to Navajos and Their Concerns about Its Future" (manuscript, copy on file at Navajo-Hopi Land Commission, Navajo Nation, Window Rock, AZ, 1993).
58. The cairns themselves remind one of Mountains One, Two, Three, and Four that surround the Emergence place or extend from it in Navajo origin stories (Matthews, Navaho legends, 135;
59. Wyman, Blessingway, 109-38, 169-98, 220-326, 447-59).
60. A grinding slick is a spot or streak of a few inches to more than a foot in length or diameter that has been nibbed smooth on a rock surface. Archaeologists think that these marks result from grinding plants or minerals.
61. See, for example, Harold S. Colton, "Principal Hopi Trails," Plateau 36 (1964): 93;
62. Herbert Gregory, "The Navajo Country: A Geographic and Hydrographic Reconnaissance of Parts of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah," US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 380 (1916), endmap;
63. Berard Haile, The Upward Moving and Emergence Way: The Gishin Biye' Version (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), 169-74;
64. Laurence Kelly, Navajo Roundup: Selected Correspondence of Kit Carson's Expedition against the Navajo, 1863-1865 (Boulder: Pruett Publishing Co., 1970), endmap;
65. Klah, Navaho Creation Myth, 101-6;
66. Clyde Kluckhohn, app. 4 in Navajo Witchcraft (1944; repr. Boston: Beacon Press, 1967);
67. Franc J. Newcomb, "Origin Legend of the Navajo Eagle Chant," Journal of American Folklore 53, no. 207 (1940): 50-77;
68. Wyman, Blessingway, 456-57, 630-34.
69. Kelley and Francis, Navajo Sacred Places, 68-69, 72-73.
70. Klara Kelley, Peggy F. Scott, and Harris Francis, "Navajo and Hopi Relations" (manuscript, copy on file at Navajo-Hopi Land Commission, Navajo Nation, Window Rock, AZ, 1991), place 196. At its northeast end, this trail connects with a trail identified by another elder, called Rimrock Horse Trail, west of Chinle. We believe the Rimrock Horse Trail could connect on the east with a trail along the south rim of Canyon de Chelly. If so, the Rimrock Horse Trail would interconnect the south rim of Canyon de Chelly with, ultimately, the south rim of the Grand Canyon.
71. Colton, "Principal Hopi Trails," 93; Titiev, "A Hopi Salt Expedition";
72. Katharine Bartlett, "How Don Pedro de Tovar Discovered the Hopi and Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas Saw the Grand Canyon, with Notes Upon Their Probable Route," Plateau 12, no. 3 (1940): 40-41.
73. W. W. Hill, "Navaho Trading and Trading Ritual: A Study in Cultural Dynamics," Southwest Journal of Anthropology 4, no. 4 (1948): 371-95 (quotation is from p. 384).
74. This great-grandfather was Mr. Crawler. Leland C. Wyman (The Mountainway of the Navajo [Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1975], 63) mentions a Mountaintop Way ceremony at Black Mountain, Arizona, performed by Mr. Crawler during which a sand painting was recorded; presumably Mr. Crawler used the songs of his ceremonial repertoire that he considered adaptable to hunting.
75. Wyman, The Mountainway of the Navajo;
76. Leland C. Wyman, "Sandpaintings of the Navaho Shootingway and the Walcott Collection," Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 13 (1970);
77. Karl W. Luckert, The Navajo Hunter Tradition (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1975);
78. Karl W. Luckert, A Navajo Bringing-Home Ceremony: The Claus Chee Sonny Version of Deerway Ajilee (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1978);
79. Washington Matthews, "The Mountain Chant: A Navajo Ceremony," in Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the Years 1883-1884, 37-467 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1887).
80. For example, Changing Woman's Prayer mentions landmarks (Wyman, Blessingway, 186).
81. Frank Mitchell, Navajo Blessingway Singer: The Autobiography of Frank Mitchell, 1881-1968, eds. Charlotte J. Frisbie and David P. McAllister (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1978), 230.
82. See, for example, Wyman, The Mountainway of the Navajo, 32-42.
83. Wyman, Blessingway, 568-69.
84. Richard F. Van Valkenburgh, "Sacred Places and Shrines of the Navajos, Part II: Navajo Rock and Twig Piles, Called Tsenadjihih," Plateau 13, no. 1 (1940): 6-9;
85. Haile, "Origin Legend of the Navaho Enemy Way," 72-73.
86. Cairns are common along indigenous trails, both pre-Columbian and post-Columbian, throughout the US Southwest, western North America, Mexico, and Peru; see Andrew Gulliford, Sacred Objects and Sacred Places (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000), 72-75;
87. Stephen C. Jett, "Cairn Trail Shrines of the Navajo, the Apache, and Puebloans, and of the Far North," in Artifacts, Shrines, and Pueblos: Papers in Honor of Gordon Page, eds. David Kirkpatrick and Meliha Duran (Albuquerque: Archaeological Society of New Mexico, 1994), 129-45;
88. Chris Kincaid, ed., Chaco Roads Project, Phase I: A Reappraisal of Prehistoric Roads in the San Juan Basin, 1983 (Albuquerque: US Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico State Office, Albuquerque District, 1988), chap. 2).
89. Kelley and Francis, "Abalone Shell Buffalo People."
90. Wyman, Blessingway, 586-99;
91. compare Haile, "Origin Legend of the Navajo Enemy Way," 141-75;
92. Wyman, The Mountainway of the Navajo, 158-72.
93. See also Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Navajo Ceremonial Stories and the Fruitland Project Area" (paper presented at Third Annual Fruitland Conference, San Juan College, Farmington, NM, February 1995).
94. Haile, The Upward Moving and Emergence Way, 162-75. The migration story of the Water People from the western ocean resembles Mayan and Incan stories of ancestors migrating inland to establish a social geography based on four quadrants;
95. see Michel Graulich, Myths of Ancient Mexico, trans. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 158-64;
96. Tedlock, Popul Vuh, 145-60;
97. Gary Urton, Paqaritambo, the History of a Myth (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
98. These stories and the social relations that they validate overlap late pre-Columbian and early post-Columbian Mexican stories and social relations presented visually (in maps or cosmograms) and associated with the long calendar cycle and with collecting tribute (Brotherston, Book of the Fourth World, 50-67, 96-102).
99. We have suggested that the Water People's history might encode a system of late pre-Columbian and early post-Columbian trading partnerships that involved groups of traders moving inland from the Gulf of California or Pacific Coast (Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Kin Yaa'a, An Anaasazi Ruin with a Dine [Navajo] Story," in Affiliation Conference on Ancestral Peoples of the Four Corners Region, vol. 1 [Santa Fe: National Park Service; Durango, CO: Fort Lewis College, 1999], 176-84.
100. Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Plan: Background Study for Dine (Navajo) Traditional Cultural Places, Phase 2, Confidential Stories and Story Geographies" (manuscript, copy on file at Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department, Window Rock, AZ, 2003), 262-63.
101. See, for example, O'Bryan, The Diné, 50-62;
102. Matthews, Navaho Legends, 82-87.
103. Michael P. Marshall, "The Chacoan Roads: A Cosmological Interpretation," in Anasazi Architecture and American Design, ed. Baker H. Morrow and V. B. Price, 62-74 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997).
104. Kincaid (ed., Chaco Roads Project, Phase I) describes the road that extends north from Chaco, and Matthews (Navaho Legends, 219) describes the zone of Emergence.
105. Winter and Hogan ("The Dinetah Phase of Northwestern New Mexico," in Current Research on the Late Prehistory and Early History of New Mexico, ed. Bradley Vierra, 299-312
106. [Albuquerque: New Mexico Archaeological Council, 1992]) have compiled and analyzed both radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates from archaeological sites with dwellings and pottery like those observed more recently among Navajos. The earliest of these dates from the 1400s. Left undiscussed is the possibility that ancestors of some Navajo clans who were in the Southwest United States earlier had a different material culture. Towner (Defending the Dinetah [Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2003], 26, 215-16) critiques the prevailing late-twentieth-century scholarly notion of a ca. 1500 CE Navajo "entry" into the Southwest, noting the likelihood that the Navajo people coalesced from various southwestern and other groups with different histories and times of first appearance in the Southwest. One basis for the scholarly notion of the ca. 1500 CE Navajo "entry" in the Southwest is the dating of the subdivision of the Southern Athabaskan (Navajo and Apache) languages to ca. 1500 CE based on glottochronology. Linguists today no longer accept "at face value" the dates produced by this technique
107. (see Robert W. Young, "Apachean Languages," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 10, ed. Alfonso Ortiz [Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983], 393-94;
108. see also Lyle Campbell, American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America [New York: Oxford University Press, 1997], 112).
109. Klara Kelley and Harris Francis, "Anthropological Traditions versus Navajo Traditions in Early Navajo History," in Diné Bikeyah: Papers in Honor of David M. Brugge, eds. David Kirkpatrick and Meliha Duran, 143-55 (Albuquerque: Archaeological Society of New Mexico, 1998);
110. see also Robert M. Begay, "Exploring Navajo-Anasazi Relationships Using Traditional (Oral) Histories" (master's thesis, Northern Arizona University, 2003);
111. David M. Brugge, "Navajo Religion and the Anasazi Connection," in Affiliation Conference on Ancestral Peoples of the Four Comers Region, vol. 1 (Santa Fe: National Park Service; Durango, CO: Fort Lewis College, 1999), 169-75;
112. Towner, Defending the Dinetah, 215-16.
113. Genetic studies also suggest that Navajo forebears came from many different groups, including pre-Columbian southwesterners; see David Smith, Joseph Lorenz, Becky K. Rolfs, Robert L. Bettinger, Brian Green, Jason Eshleman, Beth Schultz, and Ripan Malhi, "Implications of the Distribution of Albumin Naskapi and Albumin Mexico for New World Prehistory," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 111, no. 4 (2000): 557-72;
114. David Glenn Smith, Ripan S. Malhi, Jason Eshleman, Joseph G. Lorenz, and Frederika A. Kaestle, "Distribution of mtDNA Haplogroup X among Native North Americans," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110, no. 3 (1999): 271-84.
115. Newcomb and Reichard, Sandpaintings of the Navajo Shooting Chant, 31.
116. For a discussion of sand paintings as visual representations of the earth's surface and surrounding cosmos, see Peter Nabakov, "Orientations from Their Side: Dimensions of Native American Cartographic Discourse," in Cartographic Encounters: Perspective on Native American Mapmaking and Map Use, ed. Malcolm G. Leuis, 241-72 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
117. For examples of sand paintings with the four mountains, see Wyman, Blessingway, 86-87, 89, 91, 94.
118. Berard Haile, Starlore among the Navaho (1947; repr. Santa Fe: William Gannon, 1975), 25.
119. See Wyman, Blessingway, 91, for an illustration of the Mother Earth sand painting;
120. compare Berard Haile and Mary C. Wheelwright, "Emergence Myth according to the Hanelthnayhe or Upward-Reaching Rite," Navajo Religion Series, vol. 3 (Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, 1949),154-55, which shows a version of the Mother Earth sand painting with a more naturalistic placement of the cardinal mountains and other landmarks.
121. Translated prayers are reproduced by Wyman, Blessingway, 158, 186-87.
122. Blessing Way sand paintings with the Grand Corn include the Mother Earth sand painting and are illustrated by Wyman, Blessingway, 78, 81, 92-93;
123. the Male Shootingway sand painting with the Grand Corn is the Sky-Reaching Rock double sand painting, illustrated by Wyman, "Sandpaintings of the Navaho Shootingway," 59-66.
124. Wyman, Blessingway, 292.
125. James C. Faris, The Nightway: A History and a History of Documentation of a Navajo Ceremonial (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990), 179-205.
126. For an example of a sand painting with the Emergence Place in the center, see Gladys Reichard, Navaho Medicine Man: Sandpaintings and Legends of Miguelito (1939; repr. New York: Dover, 1977), pl. 13.
127. Haile, Starlore among the Navaho, 23-25.
128. June-el Piper, comp., "Native Voices: An Informal Collection of Papers Presented at the AAA Meeting, November 2000," American Indian Quarterly 25, no. 1 (2001): 44;
129. Robert A. Rundstrom, "GIS, Indigenous Peoples, and Epistemological Diversity," Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 22, no. 1 (1995): 45-57;
130. Warhus, Another America.
131. See also Begay, "Exploring Navajo-Anasazi Relationships," 77.
132. Walter R. Echo-Hawk, "Native American Religious Liberty: Five Hundred Years after Columbus," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 17, no. 3 (1993): 33-52;
133. Nina Swidler, Kurt E. Dongoske, Roger Anyon, and Alan S. Downer, eds., Native Americans and Archaeologists: Stepping Stones to Common Ground (Walnut Creek, CA; London; and New Delhi: Altamira Press, 1997).
134. Non-Indian dismissal of indigenous oral tradition is perhaps the most pervasive lament among contributors in the collections edited by Piper ("Native Voices") and Swidler et al. (Native Americans and Archaeologists).