The transformation of female orthodox monasticism in nizhnii Novgorod diocese, 1764-1929, in comparative perspective

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 78, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 793-845

  Wagner, William ^a  

^a WILLIAMS COLLEGE   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33845965698     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/511203     Document Type: Article

References (314)

1. b, ll. 167-69.
2. For example, see Arkhimandrit Evdokim, "Inoki na sluzhbe blizhnim," Bogoslolvskii vestnik 11 (1902): 305-58,
3. and K. D. Kuznetsov, K voprosu o tserkovnom imushchestve i otnoshenii gosudarstva k tserkovnim nedvizhimym imeniiam v Rossii (Doklad IV otdelu Predsobomago Prisutsviia) (Sergiev Posad, 1907), 107-42.
4. On the debate in general, see P. N. Zyrianov, Russkie monastyri i monashestvo v XIX i nachale XX veka (Moscow, 1999), 218-21, 238-45;
5. S. Golubtsov, "Polemika po monasheskomu voprosu v Moskovskoi dukhovnoi akademii (1902-1904 gg.)," Zhurnal Istoriko-Bogoslovskogo obshchestva (1992); 104-16;
6. and Skott M. Kenvorti [Scott M. Kenworthy], "Pervyi Vserossiiskii s"ezd monashestvuiushchikh v 1909 g.," in Troitse-Sergieva lavra v istorii, kul'ture i dukhovnoi zhizni Rossii: Materialy II mezhdunarodnoi konferentsii 4-6 oktiabria 2000 g. (Sergiev Posad, 2002), 166-84.
7. I am using the term "religious life" here and throughout this article in the Catholic sense of a life within a monastic community or religious order. In addition, to avoid confusion and unnecessary complexity stemming from the differences in Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox terminology, in this article Iuse the terms "religious orders" and "religious congregations" to refer to all forms of Catholic religious life, "monasticism" generally to refer to Russian Orthodox religious life, and "nuns" and "sisters" to refer to all women who were members of monastic communities or religious orders and congregations, regardless of the character of the vows they had taken.
8. For example, see Patricia Wittberg, The Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders: A Social Movement Perspective (Albany, NY, 1994);
9. Lawrence Cada, Raymond Fitz, Gertrude Foley, Thomas Giardino, and Carol Lichtenberg, Shaping the Coming Age of Religious Life (New York, 1979);
10. Sandra Marie Schneiders, "Reflections on the History of Religious Life and Contemporary Development," in Turning Points in Religious Life, ed. Carol Quigley (Wilmington, DE, 1987), 13-77;
11. and Raymond Hostie, Vie et mort des ordres religieux (Paris, 1972);
12. for studies by historians that demonstrate the same pattern, see Jo Ann Kay McNamara, Sisters in Arms: Catholic Nuns through Two Millennia (Cambridge, MA, 1996),
13. and Patricia Ranft, Women and the Religious Life in Premodem Europe (New York. 1996).
14. See I. K. Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo 988-1917 (Moscow, 1997) (a Russian trans
15. lation of I. K. Smolitsch, Russische Mönchtum; Entstehung, Entwicklung, und Wesen, 988-1917 [Würzburg, 1953]);
16. N. V. Sinitsyna, ed., Monashestvo i monastyri v Rossii xi- xx veka (Moscow, 2002);
17. and la. E. Vodarskii, "Zemlevladenie russkoi pravoslavnoi tserkvi i ee khoziaistvenno-ekonomicheskaia deiatel'nost (XI-nachalo XX v.)," in Russkoe pravoslavie; Vekhi istorii (Moscow, 1989), 500-561.
18. For examples, see McNamara, Sisters in Arms;
19. Susan O'Brien, "Terra Incognita: The Nun in Nineteenth-Century England," Past and Present 121 (1988): 110-40;
20. Dom Aidan Bellenger, "France and England: The English Female Religious from Reformation to World War," in Catholicism in Britain and France since 1789, ed. Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkin (London, 1996), 3-11;
21. Mary Pekham Magray, The Transforming Power of the Nuns: Women, Religion, and Cultural Change in Ireland, 1750-1900 (New York, 1998);
22. Claude Langlois, Le catholicisme au feminin: Les congrégations françaises à supérieure général au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1984);
23. Lucetta Scaraffia and Gabriella Zarri, eds., Women and Faith: Catholic Religious Life in Italy from Late Antiquity to the Present (Cambridge, MA, 1999);
24. Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1978);
25. and Carol K. Coburn and Martha Smith, Spirited Lives: How Nuns Shaped Catholic Culture and American Life, 1836-1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999).
26. Both Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 291-305,
27. and Zyrianov, Russkie monastyri, discuss the growth of female monasticism in works devoted to the development of monasticism in general. For studies focusing on female monasticism,
28. see E. B. Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakonodatel'stvo i zhenskie monastyri v XVIII-nachale XX veka," Tserkov' v istorii Rossii 5 (Moscow, 2003): 171-221,
29. and "Zhenskie monastyri v Rossii," in Sinitsyna, Monashestvo i monastyri, 245-84;
30. Brenda Meehan-Waters, "Popular Piety, Local Initiative, and the Founding of Women's Religious Communities in Russia, 1764-1904," St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly 30 (1986): 117-42,
31. and Holy Women of Russia: The Lives of Five Orthodox Women Offer Spiritual Guidance for Today (San Francisco, 1993);
32. Claire Louise Claus, "Die russischen Frauenklöster um die Wende des 18. Jahrhunderts, ihre karitative Tätigkeit und religiöse Bedeutung," Kirche im Osten 4 (1961): 37-60;
33. Taisiia (Monakhina), Russkoe pravoslavnoe zhenskoe monashestvo XVIII-XX vv. (Jordan-ville, NY, 1992);
34. and Ol'ga Bukova, Zhenskie obiteli prepodobnogo Serafima Sarovskogo: Istoriia desiati nizhegorodskikh zhenskikh monastyrei (Nizhnii Novgorod, 2003).
35. For histories of Nizhnii Novgorod diocese, see A. Snezhnitskii, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegorodskoi eparkhii, v pamiat' ispolnivshagosia v 1888 godu 900-letiia kresheniia Rusi (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1888), 125-77;
36. Sviatiteli zemli Nizhegorodskoi (Nizhnii Novgorod, 2003);
37. and Arkhimandrit Makarii, Pamiatniki tserkovnykh drevnostei. Istoriia Nizhegorodskoi ierarkhii (reprint ed., Nizhnii Novgorod, 1999).
38. As will be discussed in more detail below, women's communities emerged in the late eighteenth century, initially in response to Catherine II's reform; they were communally organized and consisted chiefly of laywomen who took nonbinding vows, although they generally also included a small number of sisters who had taken formal vows. On their development, see Meehan-Waters, "Popular Piety"; Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakono-datel'stvo, " 182-88, and "Zhenskie monastyri," 266-77.
39. This is evident from the tables on monasticism included in the annual reports of the Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod. Compare, e.g., those for 1843 and 1866: Izvlechenie iz otcheta Ober-Prokurora Sviateishago Sinoda za 1843 (St. Petersburg, 1844), tables, pp. 6-7,
40. and Izvlechenie iz vsepoddaneishago otcheta Ober-Prokurora Sviateishago Sinoda Grafa D. Tolstogo po vedomstvu Pravoslavnago ispovedaniia za 1866 g. (St. Petersburg, 1867), tables, pp. 6-7, 10-11.
41. The growth of female monastic communities also was particularly rapid in Moscow, Penza, Perm, Samara, Saratov, and Tambov dioceses. For trends in the empire as a whole, see V. V. Zverinskii, Material alia istoriko- topograficheskago izsledovaniia o pravoslavnykh monstyriakh v Rossiiskoi imperii, 3 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1890-1907), 1;
42. Zyrianov, Russkie monastyri;
43. and Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 280-321.
44. Edinoverie represented a compromise position reached in the late eighteenth century between the official church and Old Believers that sought to reunite the latter with the former by allowing them to continue using old rituals and books printed before the Nikonian reforms of the late seventeenth century, provided they accepted priests ordained by the official church hierarchy.
45. McNamara, Sisters in Arms, 385-418,
46. and John McManners, Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France, vol. 1, The Clerical Establishment and Its Social Ramifications (Oxford, 1998), 534-70,
47. question the charge of sexual impropriety, while Elizabeth Rapley, A Social History of the Cloister: Daily Life in the Teaching Monasteries of the Old Regime (Montreal and Kingston, 2001), 78-95, also questions that of spiritual laxity.
48. On this point, see esp. Rapley, Social History of the Cloister, 80-95. In general, on the reforms in Italy, the Habsburg Empire, Spain, France, and other European countries prior to the French Revolution,
49. see Derek Beales, Prosperity and Plunder: European Catholic Monasteries in the Age of Revolution, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 2003), 143-228.
50. Rapley, Social History of the Cloister, 24-27,
51. and Beales, Prosperity and Plunder, 8-9, 228.
52. On England, Ireland, and the United States, in addition to the works of O'Brien, Bellenger, Magray, Ewens, and Coburn and Smith cited in n. 6 above, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Washington, DC, 1988),
53. and Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6-7 (1995): 64-98.
54. For similar developments among Protestant confessions, founded in part in response to Catholic women's orders, see Michael Hill, The Religious Order: A Study of Virtuoso Religion and Its Legitimation in the Nineteenth-Century Church of England (London, 1973), 142-307;
55. Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women, 1850-1920 (Chicago, 1985); 46-84;
56. Catherine M. Prelinger, "The Nineteenth-Century Deaconessate in Germany: The Efficacy of the Family Model," in German Women in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: A Social and Literary History, ed. Ruth-Ellen B. Joeres and Mary Jo Maynes (Bloomington, IN, 1986), 215-29,
57. and "The Female Diaconate in the Anglican Church: What Kind of Ministry for Women," in Religion in the Lives of English Women, 1760-1930, ed. Gail Malmgreen (Bloomington, IN, 1986), 161-92;
58. Mary Agnes Dougherty, "The Social Gospel According to Phoebe," in Women in New Worlds: Historical Perspectives on the Wesleyan Tradition, ed. Hilah F. Thomas and Rosemary Skinner Keller, 2 vols. (Nashville, TN, 1981), 1:200-216.
59. This is evident from all of the works cited in nn. 4 and 6 above, even when an author is stressing the difficulties and resistance from male clergy encountered by the leaders of women's religious orders, but see esp. Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders;
60. Hoy, "The Journey Out"; and Ewens, The Role of the Nun.
61. The issue of organizational innovation will be discussed below. On the emergence of apostolic and teaching orders and congregations during the Catholic Reformation, see McNamara, Sisters in Arms, 452-88;
62. Ranft, Women and the Religious Life, 95-128;
63. Elizatbeth Rapley, The Dévotes: Women and Church in Seventeenth-Century France (Montreal, 1993);
64. Craig Harline, "Actives and Contemplatives: The Female Religious in the Low Countries Before and After Trent," Catholic Historical Review 81 (1995): 541-67;
65. Olwen Hufton and Frank Tallett, "Communities of Women, the Religious Life, and Public Service in Eighteenth-Century France," in Connecting Spheres: Women in the Western World, 1500 to the Present, ed. Marilyn Boxer and Jean H. Quataert (New York, 1987), 75-85;
66. and several of the essays in Scaraffia and Zarri, Women and Faith.
67. On the seventeenth-century antecedents to the reforms of the eighteenth century in Russia, see esp. V. S. Rumiantseva, "Monastyri i monashestvo v XVII veke," in Sinitsyna, Monashestvo i monastyri, 163-85,
68. and N. N. Lisovoi, "Vosemnadtsatyi vek v istorii russkogo monashestva," in ibid. 192-93, 202-5.
69. According to official figures, the number of monastic clergy declined from 25,207 to 12,392 between 1724 and 1762, although the state of record keeping in the eighteenth century makes the accuracy of these figures suspect. See Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 268, 283, 291, and Lisovoi, "Vosemnadtsatyi vek," 191.
70. Lisovoi, ibid.,
71. and Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakonodatel'stvo" and "Zhenskie monastyri," provide good summaries of the reform measures affecting monasticism introduced during the eighteenth century; see also Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 257-79;
72. James Cracraft, The Church Reform of Peter the Great (London, 1971), 26, 84-90, 97-98, 251-61, 305-7;
73. A. I. Komissarenko, Russkii absoliutizm i dukhovenstvo v XVIII v. (Ocherki istorii sekuliarizatsionnoi reformy 1764 g.) (Moscow, 1990);
74. and, for older studies, P. V. Verkhovskoi, Uchrezhdenie dukhovnoi kollegii i dukhovnyi reglament: K voprosu ob otnoshenii Tserkvi i gosudarstva v Rossii, 2 vols. (Rostov na Donu, 1916), 1:204-6, 490-91, 620-21, 2:79-80, 94-105, 124-51,
75. and Naselennyia nedvizhimyia imeniia Sv. Sinoda, Arkhiereiskikh domov i monastyrei pri blizhaishikh preemnikakh Petra Velikago: Kollegiia ekonomii i Kantseliariia Sinodal'nago ekonomicheskago pravleniia (15 iiulia 1726 g.-12 maia 1763 g.) (St. Petersburg, 1909);
76. also A. Zav'ialov, Vopros o tserkovnykh imeniiakh pri imperatritse Ekaterine II (St. Petersburg, 1900).
77. There is a discrepancy between the totals given by Lisovoi, "Vosemnadtsatyi vek," 198-200; Emchenko, "Zhenskie monastyri," 262-64; and Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 563 (table). In "Catherine and the Convents: The 1764 Secularization of the Church Lands and Its Effect on the Lives of Russian Nuns" (PhD diss., University of Missouri-Columbia, 2000), Carolynn Burbee eloquently describes the difficulty in calculating the total number of convents existing on the eve of Catherine's reform, a difficulty echoed in the state of Nizhnii Novgorod diocesan records for this period.
78. The minimum age at which women could take full monastic vows was reduced to forty in 1832.
79. TsANO, f. 570, op. 554 za 1763, d. 54, za 1764, dd. 46-47, za 1765, dd. 66, 69, and za 1767, d. 53. The Convent of the Exaltation of the Cross was formed in the eighteenth century from the amalgamation at different times of the Procession, Conception, and Resurrection Convents; hence in the period immediately before and after 1764 its name was not settled and in archival sources the former two names sometimes are used. Determining the impact of Catharine's reform in Nizhnii Novgorod diocese is complicated both by the state of archival sources and by the instability of diocesan boundaries during this period. Published sources also differ, depending largely on whether they are based on the diocesan boundaries existing prior to the reform or those established in 1799. Verkhovskoi, Noselennyia nedvizhimyia imeniia,
80. for example, uses the former, whereas Zverinskii, Material alia istoriko-topograficheskago izsledovaniia, uses the latter.
81. See also S. I. Arkhangel'skii, Ocherki po islorii promyshlennogo proletariata Nizhnego Novgoroda i Nizhegorodskoi oblasti XVII-XIX vv. (Oor'kii, 1950), 82-87,
82. and P. I. Kovaleva, "Sekuliarizatsiia tserkovnykh zemel' v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii," in Problemy istorii i tvorcheskoe nasledie Professera N. P. Sokolova (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1998), 219-21.
83. TsANO, f. 570, op. 554 za 1764, dd. 46-47, za 1765, dd. 66, 69, za 1767, d. 53; op. 555 za 1771, d. 33, za 1773, d. 29, za 1774, dd. 86, 99, za 1776, d. 27, and za 1777, d. 9.
84. Verkhovskoi, Naselennyia nedvizhimyia imeniia, tables, pp. 71-72, 75, 79-80, 85, 102, 106, 128, 130;
85. Zav'ialov, Vopros o tserkovnykh imeniiakh, 346-47, 385-86; and Arkhangel'skii, Ocherki, 82-87.1
86. have not included the four convents in Alatyr' province in any totals, since this region subsequently was transferred to another diocese. On the possibility of support from parish households, see leromonakh Makarii, "Voskresenskii zhenskii monastyr' v Nizhnem Novgorode: Zachateiskii zhenskii monastyr' v Nizhnem Novgorode: Proizkhozhdenskii zhenskii monastyr' v Nizhnem Novgorode," Nizhegorad skiia gubernskiia vedomosti (1849), no. 11, ch. neoff, 42-44, and no. 12, ch. neoff., 46-48, and on the practice of local patronage in general at this time,
87. see Sophia Senyk, Women 's Monasteries in Ukraine and Belorussia to the Period of Suppressions, Orientalia Christiana Analecta, vol. 222 (Rome, 1983), 71-99.
88. TsANO, f. 570, op. 554 za 1764, dd. 46-47, za 1765, d. 69, za 1767, d. 53; op. 555 za 1771, d. 33, za 1773, d. 29, za 1774, dd. 86, 99, za 1776, d. 27, za 1777, d. 9; op. 555 za 1782, 27, za 1783, d. 26, za 1786, d. 19, za 1792, d. 47; and f. 582, op. 1, d. 6.
89. On the interrelationship between conventual economies, organizational structure, and social composition in Russia in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, see Marie A. Thomas, "Muscovite Convents in the Seventeenth Century," Russian History 10, pt. 2 (1983): 230-42,
90. and "Managerial Roles in the Suzdal'skii Pokrovskii Convent in the Seventeenth Century," Russian History 7, pts. 1 -2 (1980): 92-112;
91. Claus, "Die russischen Frauenklöster"; and Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakonodatel'stvo," 174-82, 196-97; in Ukraine and Belorus for the same period, Senyk, Women's Monasteries in Ukraine and Belorussia, 71, 90, 124, 131-35, 142-44, 157-61, 183-84. The evidence from Nizhnii Novgorod diocese supports Claus's argument that the secularization of monastic property and limitation of common income resulting from Catherine's reform altered the social composition of convents, in turn making the adoption of true communal organization more possible. But the latter change did not follow necessarily, and at least initially the reform appears to have reinforced an idiorrhythmic structure.
92. On the Convent of the Exaltation of the Cross, see P. Albitskii (Protierei) and N. Mamontov (Sviashchennik), Krestovozdvizhenskii pervoklassnyi zhenskii monastyr' v gorode Nizhnem-Novgorode: Stoletie ego sushchestvovaniia (1813-1913 g.g.): Istoriko-statisticheskii ocherh (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1913);
93. Solov'ev (Sviashchennik), "Nizhego-rodskoi Krestovozdvizhenskii pervoklassnyi zhenskii monastyr'," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1887), no. 15 ch. neoff., 759-73, no. 16, ch. neoff., 839-65, and no. 17, ch. neoff., 898-913;
94. Iu. G. Galai and O. Iu. Galai, "Nizhegorodskii Krestovozdvizhenskii zhenskii monastyr'," in Uchenye zapiski Volgo-Viatskogo otdeleniia Mezhdunarodnoi Slavianskoi Akademii nauk, obrazovaniia, iskusstv i kul'tury, vol. 2 (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1998), 80-92;
95. and William G. Wagner, "Paradoxes of Piety: The Nizhegorod Convent of the Exaltation of the Cross, 1807-1935," in Orthodox Russia: Belief and Practice under the Tsars, ed. Valerie A. Kivelson and Robert H. Greene (University Park, PA, 2003), 211-38;
96. on the St. Nicholas Convent, see Kratkoe skazanie ob Arzamasskom Nikolaevskom zhenskom monastyre, Nizhegorodskoi gubernii: S prilozheniem slova i rechi Nizhegorodskago Episkopa Makariia (St. Petersburg, 1885);
97. N. Shchegol'kov, Arzamasskii Nikolaevskii obshchezhitel'nyi zhenskii monastyr': Istoriia ego i opisanie (Arzamas, 1903);
98. and A. S. Petriashin, Arzamasskie monastyri: Istoriia, arkhitektura, khoziaistvennaia deiatel'nost' (Arzamas, 2003), 95-126.
99. Particularly compelling arguments are made for the importance of organizational innovation by Susan O'Brien, "French Nuns in Nineteenth-Century England," Past and Present 154 (1997): 142-80;
100. Rapley, The Dévotes;
101. and Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders; but in general see the works cited in n. 6 above.
102. Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders, 60-61, 68-70, 157-58, 252;
103. McNamara, Sisters in Arms, 579-83;
104. Susan O'Brien, "Lay-Sisters and Good Mothers: Working Class Women and English Convents, 1840-1910," Studies in Church History 27 (1990): 453-65;
105. Langlois, Le catholicisme, 105, 146-51, 223-31, 266, 273, 402-3, 614, 618;
106. Marina Caffiero, "From the Late Baroque Mystical Explosion to the Social Apostolate, 1650-1850," in Scaraffia and Zarri, Women and Faith, 195-97, 202-4;
107. Magray, Transforming Power, 36-39, 75;
108. Clear, Nuns, 49-51, 86-91;
109. and Margaret Susan Thompson, "Discovering Foremothers: Sisters, Society, and the American Catholic Experience," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (1986): 273-90.
110. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 6, ll. 53-54ob.
111. Sviatiteli zemli Nizhegorodskoi, 103-8;
112. and Arkhimandrit Makarii, Pamiatniki tserkovnykh drevnostei, 188-99. For similar efforts by an influential hierarch of the church to promote monastic reform through the reorganization of convents and the formation of new women's communities,
113. see Brenda Meehan, "Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov) and the Reform of Russian Women's Monastic Communities," Russian Review 50 (1991): 310-23.
114. See also Olga A. Tsapina, "Secularization and Opposition in the Time of Catherine the Great," in Religion and Politics in Enlightenment Europe, ed. James E. Bradley and Dale K. Van Kley (Notre Dame, IN, 2001), 361-76.
115. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, dd. 6, 17, 18, 21, 23, 26, 32, 33, and f. 570, op. 556 za 1806, d. 14, and RGIA, f. 796, op. 87, d. 1033. In addition to the works by Al'bitskii and Mamontov and Solov'ev cited in n. 28 above,
116. see also I. Lebedev (Protierei), "Kratkii ocherk zhizni igumenii Nizhegorodskago Krestovozdvizhenskago devichego monastyria Dorofei," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1867), no. 19, ch. neoff., 577-89,
117. and A. Lushin, "V zemle Nizhegorodskoi prosiiavshaia...," Seiatel' (1995), no. 1-2, pp. 61-65.
118. See, in particular, Wagner. "Paradoxes of Piety."
119. The formal legal categories (sosloviia) used in Imperial Russia to indicate social status corresponded only loosely to sociological circumstances. The categories of "meshchanin" (fem. meshchanka) and "peasant" were particularly broad and diverse.
120. In communally organized monastic communities, the superior controlled the assignment of housing and obediences, the distribution of resources, etc., and therefore generally possessed more substantial and effective authority than superiors of communities organized on an idiorrhythmic basis. In addition, sisters were divided into small groups whose work and other activities were supervised by eldresses (senior sisters).
121. See Istoricheskii ocherk i opisanie Arzamasshoi Alekseevskoi obshchiny (St. Petersburg, 1866),
122. and Petriashin, Arzamasskie monastyri, 139-80.
123. See "Opisanie Vyksunskago Iverskago zhenskago monastyria," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1888), no. 7, ch. neoff., 302-12, and no. 8, ch. neoff., 353-74;
124. S. A. Kel'tsev, Iverskaia Vyksunskaia zhenskaia obshchina i osnovatel' eia leromonakh Varnava (Moscow, 1884);
125. and Prepodobnyi Varnava-ustroitel' Iversko-Vyksunskoi obiteli (Moscow, n.d.).
126. O. Morozova, "Sviatoe mesto-Mary," Nizhegorodskaia starina (2003), no. 7, pp. 47-48.
127. See the recent history of convents and women's communities associated with St. Seraphim by Olga Bukova, Zhenskie obiteli. Brief histories and descriptions of these and other women's monastic communities in Nizhnii Novgorod diocese can be found in Snezhnitskii, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegowdskoi eparkhii, 234-345;
128. A. A. Pavlovskii, Vseobshchii illiustrirovannyi putevoditel' po monastyriam i sviatym mestam Rossiiskoi imperil i Afonu (reprint of 1907 ed., New York, 1988), 411 -40;
129. I. Denisov, Pravoslavnye monastyri Rossiiskoi imperii; Polnyi spisok vsekh 1105 nyne sushchestvuiushchikh v 75 gubemiiakh i oblastiakh Rossii (i 2 inostrannykh gosudarstvakh) muzhskikh i zhenskikh monastyrei, arkhiereiskikh domov i zhenskikh obshchin (Moscow, 1908), 527-62,
130. and Pravoslavnyia russkiia obiteli: Polnoe illiustrimvannoe opisanie vsekh pravoslavnykh russkikh monastyrei v Rossiiskoi imperii i na Afone (reprint of 1910 ed., St. Petersburg, 1994), 353-73.
131. See also "Kratkaia istoriia Ababkovskago Nikolaevskago zhenskago tret'eklassnago monastyria," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1889), no. 10, ch. neoff., 456-66, no. 11, ch. neoff., 510-18, and no. 12, ch. neoff., 566-80,
132. and Arkhimandrit Serafim (Chichigov), Letopis' Serafimo-Diveevskago monastyria Nizhegorodskoi gubemit, Ardatovskago uezda s zhizneopisaniem osnovatelei eia: prepodobnago Serafima i skhimonakhi Aleksandry, urozhd. A. S. Mel'gunovoi (reprint ed., Moscow, 1996).
133. In addition to the Vyksa Iveron Community, the other exceptions were the Savior-Trinity Women's Community, the Makar'ev-Zheltovodskii-Trinity Community, and the Kurikha Community of the Holy Sign (on these communities, see n. 40 above).
134. The Aidatov Convent of the Holy Veil and the Lukoianov St. Tikhon Convent were located in towns with a population of 2,000 to 3,000. Of the remaining ten communities, one, the Aleksei, Man of God Convent in the city of Arzamas, developed from a convent that was dissolved in 1764 but continued to exist informally; three, the Seraphim-Ponetaevka All Sorrows Convent, the Kutuzovo Birthgiver of God Convent, and the Meliaevo Eleousa Women's Community, were formed by women who broke away from another community; the Vyksa Iveron Convent was founded on the initiative of father Varnava and several of his followers; the Makar'ev-Zheltovodskii-Trinity Convent was established on the initiative of the inhabitants of the town of Makar'ev; the establishment of the Savior-Trinity Women's Community was facilitated by a male peasant who had converted to Orthodoxy from Old Belief; the meshchanka Feodosiia Tsypina donated the land to establish the "Comfort and Consolation" Women's Community; and two convents were formed when some members of Old Believer hermitages accepted edinoverie.
135. On these communities, see the sources cited in n. 40 above.
136. S. A. Inikova, "Chernichestvo i sektantsvo v Voronezhskoi gubernii v 1850-e gody," in Pravoslavnaia vera i traditsii blagochestiia u russkikh v XVIII-XX vekakh, ed. O. V. Kirichenko and Kh. V. Poplavskaia (Moscow, 2002), 377-98;
137. see also L. I. Vel'diaskina, "Zhenshchina i pravoslavnnyi mir russkoi krest'ianskoi obshchiny," in Sotsial'nye transformatsii i polozhenie zhenshchin v Rossii: Materialy mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii (Ivanovo, 1995), 189-95;
138. Chris Chulos, Converging Worlds: Religion and Community in Peasant Russia, 1861-1917 (DeKalb, IL, 2003), 19-20;
139. and B. I. Gudkov, E. V. Kuznetsov, and V. V. Sarychev, "Religioznaia obstanovka v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii v kontse XIX veka," in Voprosy istorii i istorii kul'tury Nizhegorodskogo Povolzh'ia (Mezhvuzovskii sobrnik) (Gor'kii, 1985), 82-83.
140. Although normally translated as "almshouse," bogadel'nia literally means a "house where God's work is done," and the religious and charitable activities their inhabitants engaged in were quite diverse.
141. Meehan-Waters, "Popular Piety."
142. Ibid. In general, see McNamara, Sisters in Arms;
143. Ranft, Women and the Religious Life;
144. Susanna Elm, "Virgins of God": The Making of Asceticism in Late Antiquity (Oxford, 1994);
145. Caroline Walker Bynum, "Religious Women in the Later Middle Ages," in Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation, ed. Jill Rait (New York, 1987), 121-39;
146. Ruth P. Liebowitz, "Virgins in the Service of Christ: The Dispute over an Active Apostolate for Women during the Counter-Reformation," in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 131-52;
147. Caffiero, "From the Late Baroque Mystical Explosion"; and Rapley, The Dévotes.
148. Inikova, "Chernichestvo i sektantsvo"; see also Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakono-datel'stvo," 183-86;
149. and Bukova, Zhenskieo biteli, 21, 27-28, 53-54, 106, 180, 188.
150. Nearly all of the convents established between 1764 and 1869, for example, served one or more of these three objectives. See N. Grigorovich, Obzor uchrezhdeniia v Rossii pravoslavnykh monastyrei, so vremeni vvedeniia shtatov po dukhovnomu vedomstvu (St. Petersburg, 1869).
151. Emchenko, "Gosudarstvennoe zakonodatel'stvo," 183-88, 192.
152. For example, see Denisov, Pravoslavnye monastyri rossiiskoi imperil, x;
153. E. V. Beliakova and N. A. Beliakova, "Vopros o diakonissakh na Pomestnom sobore 1916-1917 gg.," Tserkovno-istoricheskii vestnik (2001), no. 8, pp. 139-61, 139;
154. Zyrianov, Russkie monastyri, 21-24;
155. F. Zybkovets, Natsionalizatsiia monastyrskikh imushchestv v Sovetskoi Rossii (1917-1921 gg.) (Moscow, 1975), 26;
156. and E. V. Pashchenko, Osobennosti struktury i sotsial'noi deiatel'nosti surskogo zhenskogo monastyria v Arkhangel'skoi gubernii kontsa 19-nachala 20 w. (Arkhangel'sk, 2003), 6-25.
157. Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders, esp. 55-70, 132, 194-98,
158. and Creating a Future for Religious Life: A Sociological Perspective (New York, 1991), 11-35. Wittberg defines an "intentional community" as "a group of persons living together on a more or less permanent basis, who voluntarily surrender control over some choices which are normally considered private for the sake of establishing a whole new way of life" (ibid., 11). Contrasting such communities with other forms of association, she states that they are distinguished by the fact that they embrace the whole of a member's public and private lives.
159. George A. Hillery, Jr., "Love and the Monastic Community," in Monastic Life in the Christian and Hindu Traditions: A Comparative Study, ed. Austin B. Creel and Vasudha Narayanan (Lewiston, NY, 1990), 361-91.
160. All of the works cited on Catholic orders make this point. On Anglican and Protestant groups, see esp. Vicinus, Independent Women, 46-84;
161. Hill, The Religious Order, 271-95;
162. and Prelinger, "The Nineteenth-Century Deaconessate in Germany." 55 Spisok nastoiatel'nits zhenskikh monastyrei i obshchin (St. Petersburg, 1889), 24-27;
163. Vedomost' muzhskim i zhenskim monastyriam i obschchinam za 1901 god (St. Petersburg, 1902), 58-63;
164. and TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1916, d. 11, 1.17. On the appeal for women of control over their bodies, see Marina Warner, Alone of All Her Sex; The Myth and Cult of the Virgin Mary (New York, 1976), 72-73, 76-78;
165. Sally Cunneen, In Search of Mary: The Woman and the Symbol (New York, 1996), 114, 117-18, 121, 284-85;
166. and Elizabeth A. Johnson, Truly Our Sister: A Theology of Mary in the Communion of Saints (New York and London, 2003), 29-32.
167. See Chulos, Converging Worlds;
168. Vera Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution (Oxford, 2004);
169. T. A. Listova et al., Pravoslavnaia zhizn' russkikh krest'ian XIX-XX vekov (Moscow, 2001);
170. and M. M. Gromyko and A. V. Buganov, O vozzreniiakh russkogo naroda (Moscow, 2000).
171. I am using here the idea of "ecclesial community" developed by Vera Shevzov in Russian Orthodoxy.
172. For example, see V. B. Bazhanov, Ob obiazannostiakh khristianina, 4th ed. (St. Petersburg, 1858), 42-145;
173. Gavriil (Arkhimandrit), Nravstvennoe bogoslovie primenitel'no k programme seminarskago kursa (Tver',1884), 369-71, 568-98, 680-86, 693-96, 798-870;
174. and K. Vetvenitskii (Protoierei) and P. Gorodtsev (Protoierei), Kratkie ocherki khristianskoi nravstvennosti: Kurs VIII klassa gimnazii (St. Petersburg, 1891), 44-141.
175. Smolich, Russkoe monashestvo, 292-93.
176. Smolitsch's observation supports the argument of Michael Hill, in The Religious Order, 39-40, 43, 62, that "presocialization" in the larger social and cultural environments influences recruitment into the religious life.
177. Chulos, Converging Worlds, 38-40.
178. Siting the main church in the center of the complex had become common for Russian Orthodox monasteries during the Muscovite period; women appear to have introduced the addition of surrounding gardens. On the physical layout of Russian Orthodox monasteries, see A. V. Ikonnikov, "Simvolika prostranstvennoi formy monastyrskogo kompleksa," in Monastyri - kul'turnye i dukhovnye tsentry Rossii i Evropy: Istoriia i sovremennost', ed. O. G. Sevan (Moscow, 2003), 39-47.
179. For examples, see Serafimo-Diveevskie predaniia: Zhitie, vospominaniia, pis'ma, tserkovnye torzhestva (Moscow, 2001);
180. Blazhennye stranitsy Diveevskogo monastyria (Moscow, 2003);
181. "Razskaz poslushnitsy Arzamasskoi Aleksievskoi zhenskoi obshchiny o chudesnom istselenii," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nia vedomosti (1881), no. 16, ch. neoff., 821-27;
182. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 629;
183. Bukova, Zhenskie obiteli;
184. and Taisiia (Monakhina), Russkoe pravoslavnoe zhenskoe monashestvo, 7-19, 106-9, 117-32. Such material also generally is included in the histories of individual monastic communities.
185. On the growth of pilgrimage after the emancipation, see Chulos, Converging Worlds, 5, 66;
186. Robert H. Greene, '"Bodies Like Bright Stars': Saints and Relics in Orthodox Russia, 1860s-1920s" (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2004), 84-152;
187. Kh. V. Poplavskaia, "Palomnichestvo, strannopriimstvo i pochitanie sviatyn' (po materialam Riazanskogo kraia)," in Listova et al., Pravoslavnaia zhizn' russkikh krest'ian, 251-300;
188. and Roy Robson, Solovki: The Story of Russia Told through Its Most Remarkable Islands (New Haven, CT, 2004), 170-85.
189. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, dela containing annual reports on the convent's membership. See also Brenda Meehan, "To Save Oneself: Russian Peasant Women and the Development of Women's Religious Communities in Prerevolutionary Russia," in Russian Peasant Women, ed. Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynn Viola (Oxford, 1992), 127-29. One advocate of spreading literacy among peasant women claimed that parents resisted allowing their daughters to attend school in part because teaching girls to read caused them "to take on airs" and go off to a convent.
190. V. Preobrazhenskii, Vpodarok materi i docheri: Sbornik nravstvenno-nazidatel'nykh statei, 4th ed. (St. Petersburg, 1900), 32-35.
191. Membership lists of the Nizhnii Novgorod Convent of the Exaltation of the Cross indicate that sisters and other relatives often entered the same monastic community. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, multiple dela.
192. See Gudkov et al., "Religioznaia obstanovka v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii,"
193. and V. I. Belous and A. P. Shmelev, "Sotsial'no-natsional'naia struktura Nizhegorodskoi gubernii v kontse xix veka (po materialam perepisi 1897 g.)," in Problemy istorii i tvorcheskoe nasledie Professora N. P. Sokolova, 206-8.
194. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, dela containing annual reports on the convent's membership. On the migration of peasant women to cities in the late imperial period,
195. see Barbara Alpern Engel, Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work, and Family in Russia, 1861 -1914 (Cambridge, 1996).
196. See the references cited in n. 30 above.
197. Hoy, "The Journey Out." See also O'Brien, "Lay Sisters and Good Mothers"; Coburn and Smith, Spirited Lives;
198. Mary Ewens, "Removing the Veil: The Liberated American Nun," in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 255-78;
199. and Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders, although all the works cited on women's religious orders in Western Europe and the United States during the nineteenth century make this point.
200. On the Diocesan Women's School, see Mikhail Kudriavtsev (Protoierei), "Kratkii otchet o Nizhegorodskom eparkhial'nom uchilishche za istekshee 50-letie ego sushchestvovaniia (1866-1916)," Nizhegorodskii tserkovno-obshchestvennyi vestnik (1916), no. 42/ 43, cols. 687-91, and no. 44, cols. 711-17. On the development of the parish school system in Nizhnii Novgorod province,
201. see Ol'ga Bukova, "Dukhovnoe obrazovanie v Rossii i Nizhegorodskoi gubernii" (unpublished paper, n.d.); the expansion of education for women in the province can be traced through Pamiatnaia knizhka Nizhegorodskoi gubernii na 1865 g. (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1864);
202. A. S. Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodka: Putevoditel' i ukazatel' po Nizhnemu Novgorodu i po Nizhegorodskoi iarmarke, 3d ed. (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1877);
203. I. Vinogradov, llliustrirovannyi putevoditel' po Nizhnemu-Novgorodu i iarmarke, 2d ed. (Moscow, 1896),
204. and Nizhegorodskii ezhegodnik za 1915 (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1915).
205. Nadieszda Kizenko, A Prodigal Saint: Father John of Kronstadt and the Russian People (University Park, PA, 2000);
206. see also Kizenko, "Protectors of Women and the Lower Orders: Constructing Sainthood in Modern Russia," in Kivelson and Greene, Orthodox Russia, 105-24.
207. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, multiple dela, and regular announcements in Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti, 1888-1905,
208. and Nizhegorodskii tserkovno-obshchestvennyi vestnik, 1906-17.
209. The development of charitable organizations and activities in Nizhnii Novgorod can be traced through the city guides and almanacs cited in n. 70 above; see also Snezhnitskii, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegorodskoi eparkhii, 431-81;
210. Galina Ulianova, "Entrepreneurs and Philanthropy in Nizhnii Novgorod, from the Nineteenth Century to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century," in Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861-1914, ed. William Craft Brumfeld, Boris V. Anan'ich, and Yuri A. Petrov (Washington, DC, 2002), 90-107;
211. and A. A. Medvedeva, "Popechitel'stvo i blagotvoritel'naia deiatel'nost' v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii do 1917 g.," Nizhegorodskaia starina (2001), no. 12, pp. 12-15.
212. Beliakova and Beliakova, "Vopros o diakonissakh na Pomestnom sobore";
213. S. V. Troitskii, Diakonissy v pravoslavnoi tserkvi (St. Petersburg, 1912);
214. Zhurnaly i protokoly zasedanii Vysochaishe uchrezhdennago Predsobornago Prisutstviia, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1906-7), 2:28-31, 79, 102-4, and 4:83-86;
215. Igumeniia Ekaterina, "O diakonissakh: (Po povodu stat'i sviashch. V. Uspenskago)," Tserkovnye vedomosti (1908), no. 15/16, suppl., pp. 728-29;
216. Materialy k zhitiiu prepodobnomuchenitsu velikoi kniagini Elizavety: Pis 'ma, dnevniki, vospominaniia, dokumenty (Moscow, 1996);
217. and The Martha-Mary Convent and Rule of St. Elizabeth the New Martyr (Jordanville, NY, 1991). On this issue and the development during the late imperial period of an Orthodox ideal of womanhood that incorporated social activism,
218. see William G. Wagner, '"Orthodox Domesticity': Creating a Social Role for Women," in Sacred Stories: Religion and Spirituality in Modern Russian Culture, ed. Heather Coleman and Mark D. Steinberg (Bloomington, IN, 2006).
219. Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders, 106-9.
220. Ibid., 231, quoting Schneiders, "Reflections," 67. It should be noted that contemplative orders also survived and continue to exist, although they constitute only a small percentage of the total number of women's orders and women religious.
221. In addition to the sources cited in n. 2 above, for examples see D_i, "O znachenii monashestva v istorii Rossii," Dukhovnaia beseda (1869), no. 49, pp. 363-69,
222. no. 50, pp. 379-90,
223. and no. 51, pp. 407-10;
224. Iosif (Arkhimandrit), "Monastyrskii vopros," Domashniaia beseda (1872), no. 42, pp. 913-17,
225. no. 43, pp. 934-40,
226. no. 44, pp. 952-56,
227. no. 45, pp. 969-72,
228. no. 46, pp. 982-88,
229. and no. 47, pp. 999-1001;
230. Dukh i zasluga monashestva dlia tserkvi i obshchestva, 2d ed. (St. Petersburg, 1874);
231. "Nechto v zashchitu monastyrei i monashestva," Volynskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1874), no. 6, ch. neoff., 192-219,
232. and no. 9, ch. neoff., 323-60;
233. Arkhimandrit L, "Monashestvo i monastyri," Domashniaia beseda (1875), no. 19, pp. 569-72,
234. no. 20, pp. 596-98,
235. no. 21, pp. 616-20.
236. no. 22, pp. 648-53,
237. no. 23, pp. 671-75,
238. no. 24, pp. 692-95,
239. no. 25, pp. 721-24,
240. and no. 26, pp. 742-45;
241. A. Kruglov, "Na sluzhbu miru - na sluzhbe bogu," Dushepoleznoe chtenie, 1902 (okt.), 186-93,
242. and Arkhimandrit Nikon, "Pravoslavnyi ideal monashestva," ibid., 194-209. Similarly, at the congresses and councils convened in 1909 and 1917-18 to discuss monastic reform, female monastics were seldom present or even consulted, even though by that time women constituted the overwhelming majority of the monastic clergy.
243. See Kenvorti, "Pervyi Vserossiiskii s"ezd monashestvuiushchikh, " Pervyi Vserossiiskii s"ezd monashestvuiushchikh 1909 goda: Vospominania uchastnika (Moscow, 1999),
244. and Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, f. R-3431, op. 1, dd. 369-75. The Holy Synod did conduct a survey of female monastic communities in 1910-11;
245. see RGIA, f. 796, op. 190, d. 375". See also Pashchenko, Osobennosti struktury i sotsial'noi deiatel'nosti surskogo zhenskogo monastyria, 18-22.
246. For exceptions, see Abbess Thaisia [Taisiia], Abbess Thaisia of Leushino: The Autobiography of a Spiritual Daughter of St. John of Kronstadt (Platina, CA, 1989),
247. and Letters to a Beginner: On Giving One's Life to God (Wildwood, CA, 1993);
248. see also Igumeniia Arseniia, Igumeniia Arseniia: Opyt dukhovnoi biografii: Pis'ma (Moscow, 2002).
249. For examples, see Margarit: Izbrannye dushespasitel'nye izrecheniia (reprint of 1882 ed., Vladimir, 2002);
250. T. V. Petrov, "Nastavleniia monakhiniam Valaamskogo igumena Nazariia," Pravoslavie i russkaia narodnaia kul'tura, bk. 1 (Moscow, 1993), 184-99;
251. Prepodobnyi Varnava, 37-95;
252. "Avtobiografiia Igumenii Serafimy," Orlovskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1891), no. 12, ch. neoff., 822-52, and no. 13, ch. neoff, 879-86;
253. Istoricheskii ocherk i opisanie Arzamasskoi Alekseevskoi obshchiny, 17-19;
254. "SerafimoDiveevskii zhenskii monastyr'," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1887), no. 7, ch. neoff., 278-81:
255. Al'bitskii and Mamontov, Krestovozdvizhenskii pervoklassnyi zhenskii monastyr', 87-90;
256. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 679; E. Poselianin, Russkie podvizhniki 19-go veka, 3d ed. (St. Petersburg, 1910);
257. and Zhizneopisaniia otechestvennykh podvizhnikov blagochestiia 18 i 19 vekov, 12 vols. (Moscow, 1906-10).
258. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 86, 1. 6.
259. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 250, ll. 10, 17; d. 335, ll. 15ob.-16; d. 286, ll. 2-2ob., 4-5; and Al'bitskii and Mamontov, Krestovozdvizhenskii pervoklassnyi zhenskii monastyr', 48, 53, 69-70.
260. 82TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 386, ll. 45-45ob., 65.
261. See also Brenda Meehan, "From Contemplative Practice to Charitable Activity: Russian Women's Religious Communities and the Development of Charitable Work, 1861-1917," in Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power, ed. Kathleen McCarthy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1990), 142-56.
262. TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1908, d. 19, ll. 16-18ob., 38-44, 46-52ob., 111 -38, 237-42ob.
263. TsANO, f. 582, op. 1, d. 197, ll. 4-6ob.
264. See the references cited in n. 72 above.
265. Ilana Friedrich Silber, Virtuosity, Charisma, and Social Order: A Comparative Sociological Study of Monasticism in Theravada Buddhism and Medieval Catholicism (Cambridge, 1995), 7, 13, 33-35, 51. 127-28, 145-50, 153-55, 195-96, 213-16.
266. TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1876, d. 23, 1.43, za 1884, d. 32, and za 1887, d. 6, 1.47;
267. Nizhegorodskii tserkovno-obshchestvennyi vestnik (1912), no. 40, cols. 973-76;
268. also (1915), no. 14, col. 341, and no. 32/33, cols. 818-22; Denisov, Pravoslavnye monastyri Rossiiskoi imperil, 527-62;
269. and Pavlovskii, Vseobshchii illiustrirovannyi putevoditel', 411-40. The Arzamas St. Nicholas, Arzamas Aleksei, Man of God, Seraphim-Diveevo Trinity, Seraphim-Ponetaevka All Sorrows, Vyksa Iveron, and Ababkovo St. Nicholas-St. George Convents all possessed venerated icons and held important annual icon processions; while not possessing any icons or relics of the same stature, the Nizhnii Novgorod Convent of the Exaltation of the Cross was visited twice annually by the Oran Mother of God icon, by far the most revered icon in the diocese. All these convents, plus the Ardatov Convent of the Holy Veil, were significant pilgrimage sites. Only the Dal'no-Davydovo St. Nicholas Convent did not fit this pattern.
270. Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy; Greene, '"Bodies Like Bright Stars.'"
271. In addition to the sources relating to these convents cited in nn. 28, 37-38, and 40 above, see TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1887, dd. 6, 14, za 1903, d. 47, and za 1908, d. 19; P. V. Ermeev, Arzamasskie mastera: Rasskazy o narodnom isskustve (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1992), 236-40;
272. "Ob uchastii odnogo monastyria Nizhegorodskoi eparkhii na vsemirnoi vystavke 1900 goda v Parizhe," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1900), no. 3, ch. off., 44-46.
273. See Hugh McLeod, "Building the 'Catholic Ghetto': Catholic Organizations 1870-1914," in Voluntary Religion, ed. W. J. Sheils and D. Wood, Studies in Church History, vol. 23 (Oxford, 1986): 411 -44;
274. Susan O'Brien, "Making Catholic Spaces: Women, Décor and Devotion in the English Catholic Church, 1840-1910," Studies in Church History 28 (1992): 449-64.
275. The exception was the St. Tikhon Convent located in the town of Lukoianov.
276. On Catholic orders, see Wittberg, Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders;
277. Hostie, Vie et Mort;
278. and H. P. M. Goddijn, "The Sociology of Religious Orders and Congregations," Social Compass 7 (1960): 431-47.
279. TsANO, f. 570, op. 558 za 1856, d. 198, za 1857, d. 15, za 1865, d. 193, and op. 559 za 1887, dd. 6, 14, za 1903, d. 47,
280. and za 1908, d. 19;
281. RGIA, f. 796, op. 442, d. 1626, ll. 85-91, d. 1731, ll. 10-11, 15-19, and d. 1789, ll. 8-22.
282. In Russian Orthodoxy, parish clergy must marry. They cannot remarry in the event that their wives die, however, and prior to the early Soviet period many widowed priests consequently retired (sometimes involuntarily) to a monastery. On disciplinary problems at monasteries, see TsANO, f. 570, op. 558 za 1856, d. 198, ll. 15-18, 28-40, 42-44, za 1865, d. 193, ll. 54, 61-62ob, and op. 559 za 1908, d. 19, ll. 201-6ob, 217-20; on the possible instability of membership,
283. see ibid., op. 558 za 1852, d. 210,
284. which reveals a high rate of turnover among novices, most of whom were young unmarried sons of members of the clergy. The pattern in Nizhnii Novgorod diocese differed from that in Moscow diocese noted in Zyrianov, Rusakie monastyri, 22-26; no data are available for the empire as a whole.
285. Inikova, "Chernichestvo i sektantsvo v Voronezhskoi gubernii." Instituted by Peter I in 1722, the poll tax was levied on all adult males of lower social estates. Because, respectively, of the tax and the way in which it was assessed and paid, both state officials and peasant households and village authorities were reluctant to release adult male members of households.
286. TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1908, d. 19, ll. 201-15ob. On the sense of crisis with respect to male monasticism, see Zyrianov, Russkie monastyri, 218-21, 238-48, 280-81;
287. Scott M. Kenworthy, "The Revival of Monasticism in Modern Russia: The Trinity-Sergius Lavra, 1825-1921" (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2002), 292-338,
288. and his "Pervyi Vserossiiskii s"ezd monashestvuiushchikh"; and Pervyi Vserossiiskii s"ezd monashestvuiushchikh 1909 goda.
289. See Snezhnitskii, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegorodskoi eparkhii, 446-81,
290. and N. I. Dranitsyn, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegorodskoi eparkhii na 1904 g. (Nizhnii Novgorod, 1904), 133-42.
291. In 1911, the icon generated an income of 28,828 rubles; TsANO, f. 570, op. 559 za 1908, d. 19, 1. 28ob. On these processions and the monastery in general, see A. V_skii, "Nechto ob Oranskom monastyre," in Nizhegorodskaia starina: Sbornik statei kasaiushchikhsia Nizhegorodskogo kraia, comp. N. I. Dranitsyn, 2 vols. (n.p., n.d.), 1 (unpaginated);
292. Nizhegorodskii tserkovno-obshchestvennyi vestnik (1912), no. 40, cols. 973-76;
293. and Gromyko and Buganov, O vozzreniiakh russkogo naroda, 128-30;
294. see also "Iz istorii Oranskoi pustyni," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1866), no. 12, ch. neoff., 479-89, no. 13, ch. neoff., 537-50, no. 18, ch. neoff., 703-17, no. 19, ch. neoff., 719-27, no. 20, ch. neoff., 758-62,
295. and no. 21, ch. neoff., 794-803;
296. and Nikolai Pchelin, "lavliaiushchii vechnost' soboi... ": Oranskii Bogoroditskii monastyr' na izlome epokh (Nizhnii Novgorod, 2001). On the role of icon visitations and processions in establishing ties between monasteries and communities,
297. see Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy, 179-90.
298. On the Gorodets St. Feodor Monastery, see Istoricheskoe opisanie Gorodetskago Feodorovskago monastyria i ego nastoiashchee sostoianie (St. Petersburg, 1870),
299. and lu. G. Galai, Fedorovskii monastyr', Gorodetskaia starina, vol. 2 (Gorodets, 1994);
300. on the Vysokogorskaia Hermitage, see I. N. Chetyrkin, "Arzamasskaia Vysokogorskaia Voznesenskaia muzhskaia pustyn'," Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti (1888), no. 10, ch. neoff., 466-75, no. 11, ch. neoff., 524-32,
301. and no. 12, ch. neoff., 575-83,
302. and Petriashin, Arzamasskie monastyri, 193-210. On all three monasteries,
303. see Snezhnitskii, Adres-Kalendar' Nizhegomdskoi eparkhii; Denisov, Pravoslavnye monastyri Rossiiskoi imperil; and Pavlovskii, Vseobshchii illiustrimvannyi putevoditel'.
304. Caffiero, "From the Late Baroque Mystical Explosion," 204.
305. Elm, "Virgins of God," vii.
306. Nicholas Atkin, "The Politics of Legality: The Religious Orders in France, 1901-1945," in Tallett and Atkin, Religion, Society and Politics in France since 1789, 149-65.
307. Coburn and Smith, Spirited Lives, 223-25; Ewens, "Removing the Veil."
308. On this crisis, in addition to the sociological studies cited in n. 4 above, see Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh, Women in the Vanishing Cloister: Organizational Decline in Catholic Religious Orders in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993); and Goddijn, "The Sociology of Religious Orders," 444-46.
309. As late as 1938, for example, a group of nuns lived in the bell tower of a parish church, serving officially as watchmen while unofficially continuing to live a communal religious life. TsANO, f. 3074, op. 1, d. 1132, 1. 4. On Nizhnii Novgorod diocese, see Wagner, "Paradoxes of Piety," 228-35, and Bukova, Zhenskie obiteli;
310. in general, see Zybkovets, Natsionalizatsiia, and
311. Jennifer Jean Wynot, Keeping the Faith: Russian Orthodox Monasticism in the Soviet Union, 1917-1939 (College Station, TX, 2004).
312. Characterizing this interweaving of innovation and tradition as a process of "braiding," Robert Orsi argues in Between Heaven and Earth: The Religious Worlds People Make and the Scholars Who Study Them (Princeton, NJ, 2005), 8-12, that it typifies the encounter of religion with modernity.
313. In Nizhnii Novgorod diocese, as of 2004, five convents and three associated hermitages had been reestablished. See Monastyri russkoi pravoslavnoi tserkvi: Spravochnikputevoditel' (Moscow, 2001), 181-90,
314. and Russkie monastyri: Povolzh'e: Kostromskaia, Ivanovskaia, Nizhegorodskaia, Ioshkar-Olinskaia, Cheboksarskaia eparkhii (Novomoskovsk and Moscow, 2003), 280-473.