Taiwan expendable? Nixon and Kissinger go to China

Journal of American History

Volumn 92, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 109-135

  Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33845785266     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3660527     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. He upstaged Richard M. Nixon, whose memoir appeared the year before Kissinger's first volume. Richard M. Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York, 1978).
2. Nixon grumbled in 1971 that Kissinger wanted to steal credit for the China opening. See H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York, 1994), 365, 367.
3. Since Nixon was as zealous as Kissinger in keeping the archival record on China closed, nonspecialists saw the events of 1971-1972 the way Kissinger intended. The most influential biography of Kissinger followed his mythological version of the China initiative, declaring "as if by magic the American attitude... turned around...." Suddenly, Kissinger sanctified the Chinese as human and relations with them became acceptable. See Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York, 1992), 334. Kissinger's dominance over the record meant that few questioned his assertions regarding Taiwan.
4. Two works proved especially helpful for this study. For its critique of Nixon and Kissinger, see James Mann, About Face: A History of America's Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton (New York, 1999).
5. On China's role, see Chen Jian, Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, 2001).
6. U.S.-Taiwan relations play a small part in the otherwise thoughtful literature on the China opening. See Rosemary Foot, The Practice of Power: U.S. Relations with China since 1949 (Oxford, 1995);
7. Patrick Tyler, A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China: An Investigative History (New York, 1999);
8. Harry Harding, The Fragile Relationship: The United States and China since 1972 (Washington, 1992);
9. and Robert Ross, Negotiating Cooperation: The United States and China, 1969-1989 (Stanford, 1995).
10. For evidence that the field is changing, see the fine studies of Alan D. Romberg, Rein In at the Brink of the Precipice: American Policy toward Taiwan and U.S.-P.R.C. Regions (Washington, 2003);
11. Richard C. Bush, At Cross Purposes: U.S.-Taiwan Relations since 1942 (Armonk, 2004);
12. and John Garver, Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia (Armonk, 1997).
13. Participants in normalization, frustrated by Kissinger, have sought to correct the record. Marshall Green helped fund an oral history project at the Foreign Service Institute in Arlington, Virginia, and coauthored an account: Marshall Green, John H. Holdridge, and William N. Stokes, War and Peace with China: First-Hand Experiences in the Foreign Service of the United States (Bethesda, 1994).
14. New resources are becoming available at an accelerating pace. The Henry Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons) were released by the National Archives and Records Administration in mid-2004. The Nixon White House Tapes have been released in several segments and are also at the National Archives. Complete transcripts of Kissinger's July 1971 meetings and Nixon's February 1972 trip were finally declassified in December 2003 and were posted by William Burr, see National Security Archive, Nixon's Trip to China 〈http://www.gwu.edu/ -nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB106/index.htm〉 (Feb. 7, 2005).
15. An expanding universe of oral history interviews is available from the U.S. Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection (Arlington, Va.). See Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, ed., China Confidential: American Diplomats and Sino-American Relations, 1945-1996 (New York, 2001).
16. Records from the Chinese side have been released sporadically, with some appearing in the Woodrow Wilson Center's Cold War International History Project Bulletin 〈http://cwihp.si.edu〉 (Feb. 7, 2005). Unfortunately, Taiwan lacks a program for the regular declassification of Cold War-era documents or a vehicle for disseminating its records abroad.
17. Nixons and Kissinger's biographers were not especially concerned about the Taiwan variable in the China equation. See Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon, vol. II: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962-1972 (New York, 1989);
18. Richard Reeves, President Nixon: Alone in the White House (New York, 2001);
19. Herbert S. Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America (Boston, 1990);
20. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York, 1994);
21. Roger Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician (New York, 1990);
22. Isaacson, Kissinger; Robert D. Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger: Doctor of Diplomacy (New York, 1989);
23. Roger Morris, Uncertain Greatness: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1977);
24. and Seymour M. Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (New York, 1983).
25. The classic works are Ross Koen, The China Lobby in American Politics (New York, 1974);
26. and Stanley D. Bachrack, The Committee of One Million: "China Lobby" Politics, 1953-1971 (New York, 1976). The former was not published for over a decade because of the lobby.
27. On Nixon's cultivation of the idea that only someone like him could have launched the China initiative, see William Safire, Before the Fall: An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House (New York, 1975), 366-67.
28. Cf. Melvin Small, The Presidency of Richard Nixon (Lawrence, 1999), 118;
29. and John K. Fairbank, The United States and China (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 457.
30. There is still no full scholarly analysis of the talks, but see Wang Bingnan, Nine Years of Sino-American Ambassadorial Talks (Beijing, 1985);
31. and Kenneth T. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists: The United States Experience, 1953-1967 (New York, 1968).
32. Once thought to have relinquished management of foreign policy to his secretary of state, Dwight D. Eisenhower has emerged in the revisionist literature as active and savvy. Few of those works, however, deal at any length with China policy. See Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York, 1982);
33. Blanche Wiesen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower: A Startling Reappraisal of the Eisenhower Presidency (Garden City, 1981);
34. Richard A. Melanson and David Mayers, eds., Reevaluating Eisenhower: American Foreign Policy in the Fifties (Urbana, 1987);
35. and Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. II: The President (New York, 1984).
36. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-54 (17 vols., Washington, 1985), XIV, pt. 1, 409-10.
37. Ronald W. Pruessen, "Over the Volcano: The United States and the Taiwan Strait Crisis, 1954-1955," in Re-examining the Cold War, ed. Robert S. Ross and Jiang Changbin (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 81-82;
38. David Allan Mayers, Cracking the Monolith: U.S. Policy against the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949-1955 (Baton Rouge, 1986), 115-25.
39. For the traditional picture of John Foster Dulles as an inflexible anticommunist, see Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston, 1973).
40. The opening of the archives made a more sophisticated portrait possible. See Richard H. Immerman, ed., John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War (Princeton, 1990).
41. Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, "John Foster Dulles and the Taiwan Roots of the 'Two Chinas' Policy," in John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, ed. Immerman, 251-59;
42. Dean Rusk, As I Saw It (New York, 1990), 285;
43. Warren I. Cohen, Dean Rusk (Totowa, 1980), 164.
44. On the Taiwan Strait crises of 1954-1955 and 1958, see Robert Accinelli, Crisis and Commitment: United States Policy toward Taiwan, 1950-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1996);
45. Gordon H. Chang, Friends and Enemies: The United States, China, and the Soviet Union, 1948-1972 (Stanford, 1990), 116-42;
46. Zhang Shu Guang, Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese-American Confrontations, 1949-1958 (New York, 1992);
47. and Gordon Chang and He Di, "The Absence of War in the U.S.-Chinese Confrontation over Quemoy and Matsu in 1954-55: Contingency, Luck, Deterrence," American Historical Review, 98 (Dec. 1993), 1500-1524.
48. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Policy in Asia, 86 Cong., 1 sess., Nov. 1, 1959;
49. Leonard A. Kusnitz, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: America's China Policy, 1949-1979 (Westport, 1984), 115-16;
50. Chang, Friends and Enemies, 272-73;
51. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, US Policy with Respect to Mainland China, 89 Cong., 2 sess., March 1966.
52. On an earlier conditional containment without isolation, see Noam Kochavi, A Conflict Perpetuated: China Policy during the Kennedy Years (Westport, 2002), 213-33.
53. Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, Uncertain Friendships: Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the United States, 1945-1992 (New York, 1994), 53-62.
54. Carver, Sino-American Alliance, 84-88.
55. Tucker, "John Foster Dulles and the Taiwan Roots of the 'Two Chinas' Policy," 244-51;
56. Kochavi, Conflict Perpetuated, 64-67.
57. Robert S. Norris, William M. Arkin, and William Burr, "Where They Were," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 55 (Nov.-Dec. 1999), 26-35;
58. David Albright and Corey Gay, "Taiwan: Nuclear Nightmare Averted," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, ibid., 54 (Jan.-Feb. 1998), 55-56;
59. Amembassy Taipei to Department of State, "Indications GRC Continues to Pursue Atomic Weaponry," airgram 1037, June 20, 1966, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 19, National Security Archive 〈http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB20/18-01.htm〉 (Jan. 31, 2005).
60. Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan (Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 286.
61. Arthur W. Hummel Jr., cable 993, March 17, 1966, folder: China cables, vol. 6, 3/66-9/66, box 239, National Security Files, Country Files (Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.);
62. Dean Rusk to Lyndon B. Johnson, memo, n.d., folder: China-Visit of C. K. Yen 5/9-10/67 Briefing Book, box 244-45, cable 993, March 17, 1966, folder: China cables, ibid.
63. Koen, China Lobby in American Politics, 41;
64. Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon, 590-91;
65. Kusnitz, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy, 95;
66. Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America, 210.
67. Nixon, RN, 126, 256, 258, 282.
68. Arthur W. Hummel Jr. interview by Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, May 1992, transcript (in Nancy Bernkopf Tucker's possession);
69. Mann, About Face, 17-18.
70. Richard M. Nixon, "Asia after Vier Nam," Foreign Affairs, 46 (Oct. 1967), 111-25;
71. Bachrack, Committee of One Million, 261.
72. Kissinger, White House Years, 164;
73. Isaacson, Kissinger, 334.
74. Marvin Kalb and Bernard Kalb, Kissinger (New York, 1975), 248-53, esp. 253;
75. Raymond L. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation (Washington, 1985), 214-15;
76. Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 365;
77. Morris, Uncertain Greatness, 204-5.
78. Kissinger gets more credit for an independent interest in China in John L. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York, 1982), 282.
79. John H. Holdridge, Crossing the Divide: An Insider's Account of the Normalization of U.S.-China Relations (New York, 1997), 35;
80. James Lilley, China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia (New York, 2004), 156.
81. Robert S. Litwak, Détente and the Nixon Doctrine: American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability, 1969-1976 (New York, 1984), 64-65;
82. Carry Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of the Self-Made Man (New York, 1971), 87-90.
83. Marvin Liebman, Coming Out Conservative: An Autobiography (San Francisco, 1992), 180, 189;
84. Bachrack, Committee of One Million, 261;
85. New York Times, April 26, 1970, p. A14;
86. Walter McConaughy, cable 9917, [c. April 1970], vol. I: Visit of Vice Premier Chiang Ching-kuo of China, April 21-23, 1970, box 913, VIP Visits, National Security Council Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project (National Archives, College Park, Md.).
87. Mann, About Face, 22;
88. Foot, Practice of Power, 107;
89. Nixon, Alexander Haig, and Walter McConaughy, conversation 532-17, June 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes (National Archives, College Park, Md.).
90. State, cable 27529, Feb. 24, 1970, Paul Kreisberg Freedom of Information case (in Tuckers possession);
91. Tucker, ed., China Confidential, 97;
92. James C. Shen, The U.S. and Free China: How the U.S. Sold Out Its Ally (Washington, 1983), 66;
93. McConaughy, cable 1314, March 24, 1970, vol. I, box 913, VIP Visits, National Security Council Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project; David Dean, cable A-206, July 21, 1970, POL Chicom-US folder, Subject-Numeric Files 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Security Archive, George Washington University, Washington, D.C.).
94. Nguyen Tien Hung and Jerrold L. Schecter, eds., The Palace File (New York, 1989), 34-35;
95. Ch'ien Fu, report, spring 1970, file 412.21: Vice Premier Chiang's Visit to the US (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives, Taipei, Taiwan);
96. Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Chow Shu-kai, cable 157, April 14, 1970, folder: specific telegrams to R.O.C. ambassador, file 412.21, ibid.;
97. Chow, cable 3022 (694), April 15, 1970, folder: specific telegrams to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ibid.
98. Shen, U.S. and Free China, 51;
99. Taylor, Generalissimo's Son, 296-98, esp. 297;
100. Kissinger, Chiang Ching-kuo, John Holdridge, James Shen, and Chow, memcon, April 22, 1970, vol. I, box 913, VJP Visits, National Security Council Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project.
101. Taylor, Generalissimo's Son, 300.
102. Henry Kissinger to Spiro Agnew, memo, Aug. 22, 1970, folder: Vice President's Briefing Book, Aug. 1970, Republic of China, box 406, Subject Files, National Security Council Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project; Objectives Paper, [c. Aug. 1970], Generalissimo's Son, ibid.
103. Wei Tao-ming, Foreign Minister, to President's Office, Dec. 10, 1969, files 551 and 565: Agnew Visits (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives); Agnew and Yen Chia-kan, memcon, Jan. 1970, Generalissimo's Son, ibid.;
104. Tai Rei-ming to Chiang Kai-shek, memo, Aug. 18, 1970, Generalissimo's Son, ibid.
105. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 92;
106. Kissinger, White House Years, 713, 729;
107. Haig to Kissinger, memo, March 25, 1971, folder: Items to discuss with the President 1/1/71-7/31/71, box 336, Policy Coordination Staff/Policy Planning Staff Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969-1977, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives, College Park, Md.).
108. K The U.S. view that Taiwan's status was "undetermined" was reflected in "US China Policy," National Security Study Memorandum 106, Feb. 16, 1971;
109. see Romberg, Rein In at the Brink of the Precipice, 22-25.
110. Richard M. Nixon, "Panel Interview at the Annual Convention of the American Society for Newspaper Editors," April 16, 1971, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon (Washington, 1972), 144;
111. Kissinger to Nixon, May 3, 1971, box 1031: Exchanges Leading Up to the Henry A. Kissinger trip to China-Dec. 1969-July 1971 (1), National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
112. Warsaw, cable A-25, Jan. 24, 1970, folder: Stoessel-Lei Talks, report of the 135 meeting, Jan. 20, 1970, POL Chicom-US folder, Subject-Numeric Files 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Security Archive).
113. Nixon, RN, 547.
114. Kissinger, White House Years, 749;
115. Kissinger and Zhou Enlai, memcon, 4:35-11:20 p.m., July 9, 1971, box 1033: China, Henry A. Kissinger memcons July 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
116. Chen, Mao's China and the Cold War, 263-64;
117. Kissinger, White House Years, 749;
118. Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 4:35-11:20 p.m., July 9, 1971, box 1033: China, Henry A. Kissinger memcons July 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
119. Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 12:10-6:00 p.m. and 11:20-11:50 p.m., July 10, 1971, box 1033: China, Henry A. Kissinger memcons July 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
120. Kissinger, White House Years, 1092;
121. Tucker, ed., China Confidential 254;
122. Douglas MacArthur to Dept. Army, cable C-56410, May 29, 1950, folder 4: Formosa file March 1948-Oct. 1950, box 8, Far East Command Records, RG 6 (MacArthur Memorial Bureau of Archives, Norfolk, Va.);
123. Tucker, Uncertain Friendships, 68-69.
124. Nixon and Kissinger, conversation 534-3, July 1, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes.
125. Zhonghua renmin gongbeguo shilu (A factual record of the Peoples Republic of China) (3 vols., Changchun, 1994), III, 713-14.
126. Tucker, ed., China Confidential 254;
127. Kissinger, White House Years, 705;
128. William Burr, ed., The Kissinger Transcripts: The Top-Secret Talks with Beijing and Moscow (New York, 1998), 42.
129. Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 4:35-11:20 p.m., July 9, 1971, box 1033: China, Henry A. Kissinger memcons July 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
130. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents, 1962-1986 (New York, 1995), 226-28;
131. Jussi M. Hanhimaki, "'Dr. Kissinger' or 'Mr. Henry'? Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting," Diplomatic History, 27 (Nov. 2003), 650-51;
132. Taylor, Generalissimo's Son, 304.
133. McConaughy, cable 3632, July 26, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, July 23, 1971, box 3211: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives, College Park, Md.);
134. Nixon, Haig, and McConaughy, conversation 532-17, June 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes;
135. Nixon and Kissinger, conversation 1-91, April 14, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes (National Securtiy Archive). The transcript was created by Sharon Chamberlain of George Washington University.
136. Taylor, Generalissimo's Son, 304;
137. Mann, About Face, 37;
138. Shen, U.S. and Free China, 110;
139. Haig to Kissinger with Richard Helms report attached, memo, Aug. 26, 1971, folder: Aug. 1971, box 340: Winston Lord Chronology File, May 1971 through Feb. 1972, Policy Coordination Staff/Policy Planning Staff Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969-1977, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives); Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 11:20-11:50 p.m., July 10, 1971, box 1033: China, Henry A. Kissinger memcons July 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
140. Haig to Kissinger, memo, Feb. 23, 1971, folder: Items to discuss with the President 1/1/71-7/31/71, box 336: Winston Lord Chronological File, Jan.-May 1973 through Winston Lord Travel Information, Policy Coordination Staff/Policy Planning Staff Directors Files (Winston Lord), 1969-1977, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
141. Richard Allen interview by Tucker, Feb. 1, 2001, typescript (in Tucker's possession);
142. Jonathan D. Salant, "New Recordings Show Nixon No Fan of Reagan," Associated Press, Dec. 11, 2003;
143. Roger Sullivan interview by Tucker, Feb. 2, 2001, typescript (in Tuckers possession).
144. Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 4:42-7:17 p.m., Oct. 21, 1971, box 1034: Polo II-Henry A. Kissinger China Trip Oct. 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive);
145. Michael K. Deaver, Behind the Scenes (New York, 1987), 66.
146. Kissinger to Nixon, memo, "My August 16 Meeting with the Chinese Ambassador in Paris," Aug. 16, 1971, box 330: China Exchanges July-Oct. 20, 1971, Policy Coordination Staff/Policy Planning Staff Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969-1977, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
147. Nixon and Kissinger, conversation 581-1, Sept. 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes (National Security Archive), transcript by Chamberlain;
148. Nixon and Kissinger, conversation 582-3, Sept. 30, 1971, ibid.
149. Kissinger to Nixon, draft memo, Nov. 19, 1970, folder: Winston Lord, Nov. 1970, box 334: Winston Lord Chronological File, Sept. 1970-Nov. 1970, Policy Coordination Staff/Policy Planning Staff Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969-1977, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
150. Winston Lord to Kissinger, memo, Nov. 25, 1970, ibid.
151. "The Entire UN Membership Question: US-China Policy," National Security Study Memorandum 107, March 15, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, box 3210: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives).
152. Kissinger, White House Years, 773;
153. Nixon, Haig, and McConaughy, conversation 532-17, June 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes;
154. Charles Yost to William Rogers, Feb. 8, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Feb. 1, 1971, box 3209: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives).
155. McConaughy, cable 3387, July 11, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chinat, July 1, 1971, box 3211: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
156. Chow, Marshall Green et al., memcon, Jan. 25, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Jan. 20, 1971, box 3209: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), ibid.;
157. Samuel DePalma, Assistant Secretary International Organization Affairs, to Kissinger, memo transmitting study pursuant to National Security Studies Memorandum
158. "The Entire United Nations Membership Question: US-China Policy," Feb. 6, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, March 15, 1971, box 3210: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), ibid.
159. Presentation of Credentials, May 18, 1971, folder: [EX] CO34-1, Republic of China (Formosa-Taiwan) 1/1/71-U of 2], box 18, Subject Files, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project;
160. State, cable 134611, July 24, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chinat, July 23, 1971, box 3211: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
161. McConaughy, cable 3680, July 28, 1971, ibid.;
162. John H. Holdridge to Kissinger, memo, Aug. 19, 1971, folder: [EX] CO34-1, Republic of China (Formosa-Taiwan) 1/1/71-[1 of 2], box 18, Subject Files, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials Project.
163. Tucker, ed., China Confidential, 209;
164. Foreign Regions of the United States, 1961-1963 (25 vols., Washington, 1996), XXII, 46;
165. Yost, cable 087, Jan. 13, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Jan. 1, 1971, box 3209: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives).
166. Kissinger to Nixon, memo, May 3, 1971, box 1031: Exchanges Leading Up to Henry A. Kissinger Trip to China, Dec. 1969-July 1971(1), National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
167. McConaughy, cable 1255, March 20, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, March 15, 1971, box 3210: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-1973, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives).
168. Bennett, cable 2063, July 30, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, July 23, 1971, box 3211, ibid.;
169. George H. W. Bush, cable 2280, Aug. 18, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Aug. 16, 1971, box 3212, ibid.;
170. McConaughy, cable 4206, Aug. 24, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Aug. 20, 1971, ibid.;
171. Shen, U.S. and Free China, 62.
172. McConaughy to Rogers, cable 4553, Sept. 10, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Sept. 10, 1971, box 3213: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
173. Rogers to Nixon, memo, Sept. 11, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Sept. 10, 1971, ibid.
174. Nixon, Rogers, and Kissinger, conversation 581-6, Sept. 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes (National Security Archive), transcript by Chamberlain;
175. Garver, Sino-American Alliance, 261.
176. Nixon, Rogers, and Kissinger, conversation 581-6, Sept. 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes;
177. Kissinger, White House Years, 770, 772, 776.
178. John Connally and Kissinger, telcon, Oct. 1, 1971, folder: 1971, 1-4 Oct. (8), box 11, Nixon Presidential Materials Project;
179. Nixon and Kissinger, telcon, 1:22 p.m., Oct. 2, 1971, ibid.
180. Tucker, ed., China Confidential, 264-65;
181. Washington Post, Aug. 9, 1988, p. A1;
182. Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush (New York, 1997), 152.
183. Nixon and Kissinger, telcon, April 27, 1971, box 1031(1), National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive);
184. Bush, cable 3738, Oct. 21, 1971, folder: United Nations 6 Chicom, Oct. 21, 1971, box 3215: United Nations (Chicom-Chinat), Central Foreign Policy Files, 1970-73, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives);
185. Kissinger and Rogers, telcon, 8:50 a.m., Oct. 4, 1971, folder: 1971, 1-4 Oct. (8), box 11, Kissinger Telcons (National Archives, College Park, Md.).
186. George Bush, Looking Forward (Garden City, 1987), 114-16.
187. Nixon, Haig, and McConaughy, conversation 532-17, June 30, 1971, Nixon White House Tapes;
188. Nixon and Kissinger, telcon, 9:35 a.m., March 30, 1971, folder: 1971 25-31 March (6), box 9, Kissinger Telcons.
189. Kissinger and Zhou, memcon, 10:30 a.m.-1:45 p.m., Oct. 21, 1971, box 1034: Polo II-HenryA. Kissinger China Trip Oct. 1971, National Security Council Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive);
190. Kissinger, White House Years, 782;
191. Nixon, Kissinger, and Zhou, memcon, 2:10-6:00 p.m., Feb. 22,1972, box 87: "Beginning February 20, 1972," President's Office Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive).
192. Garver, Sino-American Alliance, 256-62.
193. Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America, 623;
194. Kissinger and Ronald Reagan, telcon, 5:15 p.m., Oct. 29, 1971, folder: 1971 15-30 Oct. (11), box 11, Kissinger Telcons; Kissinger and Walter Judd, telcon, 4:42 p.m., Nov. 23, 1971, folder: 1971 15-23 Nov. (2), ibid.
195. Nixon, Kissinger, and Zhou, memcon, 2:10-6:00 p.m. Feb. 22, 1972, box 87: "Beginning February 20, 1972," President's Office Files, Nixon Materials (National Security Archive) 〈http://www2.gwu.edu/-nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/NSAEBB106/press.htm〉 (Dec. 11, 2003);
196. Romberg, Rein In at the Brink of the Precipice, 47.
197. The Chinese and English texts of the communiqué are not the same, and the Chinese is stronger; see Dong Mei, Zhong Mei guanxi ciliao xuanbian (Selected compilation of materials on U.S.-China relations) (Beijing, 1982), 3-8;
198. Joint Communiqué between the P.R.C. and the U.S.A., Feb. 27, 1972, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon, 1972 (Washington, 1974), 376-79.
199. Gerald R. Ford and Kissinger, telcon, 5:35 p.m., Feb. 8, 1972, folder: 1972 5-10 Feb. (3), box 13, Kissinger Telcons;
200. Shen, Free China, 13.
201. The Taiwan Relations Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1979, provided for the conduct of routine business after the United States broke diplomatic relations with Taiwan. Since neither President Jimmy Carter nor his national security adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski worried a great deal more about Taiwan than did Nixon and Kissinger, Congress added security provisions to the legislation originally proposed by the executive branch. Taiwan began its gradual democratization in the mid-1980s.