From captives to slaves: Commodifying Indian women in the Borderlands

Journal of American History

Volumn 92, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 19-46

  Barr, Juliana ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33845778379     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3660524     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Fray Miguel Santa María y Silva to Viceroy Antonio Bucareli y Ursúa, July 21, 1774, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1768-1780, trans. and ed. Herbert Eugene Bolton (2 vols., Cleveland, 1914), II, 74-75.
2. James F. Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill, 2002);
3. Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670-1717 (New Haven, 2002);
4. Russell M. Magnaghi, Indian Slavery, Labor, Evangelization, and Captivity in the Americas: An Annotated Bibliography (Lanham, 1998). Recent conference programs of historical organizations (notably the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture) indicate that numerous studies of Indian slavery across colonial North America are in the works, particularly dissertations.
5. For a recently completed example, see Brett H. Rushforth, "Savage Bonds: Indian Slavery and Alliance in New France" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 2003).
6. Susan Sleeper-Smith, Indian Women and French Men: Rethinking Cultural Encounter in the Western Great Lakes (Amherst, 2001);
7. Jennifer S. H. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver, 1980);
8. Jacqueline Peterson, "The People In Between: Indian-White Marriage and the Genesis of a Métis Society and Culture in the Great Lakes Region, 1680-1830" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Chicago, 1981);
9. Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society, 1670-1870 (Norman, 1980);
10. Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1995);
11. Tanis C. Thorne, The Many Hands of My Relations: French and Indians on the Lower Missouri (Columbia, Mo., 1996);
12. Greg O'Brien, Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830 (Lincoln, 2002);
13. Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, 1998).
14. On historians' definitions and uses of agency, particularly in relationship to slavery, see Walter Johnson, "On Agency," Journal of Social History, 37 (Fall 2003), 113-24.
15. On the limits of agency for women caught in the exchanges of men, see Brooks, Captives and Cousins;
16. and Albert L. Hurtado, Intimate Frontiers: Sex, Gender, and Culture in Old California (Albuquerque, 1999).
17. On Sacagawea's experience with the Lewis and Clark expedition as well as her escape from slavery and her life afterward-lost to history by past tendencies to cast her as a tragic heroine who died young-see Thomas P. Slaughter, Exploring Lewis and Clark: Reflections on Men and Wilderness (New York, 2003), 86-113.
18. On the mythologizing of Sacagawea, see Donna Barbie, "Sacajawea: The Making of a Myth," in Sifters: Native American Women's Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York, 2001), 60-76.
19. Igor Kopytoff, "Slavery," Annual Review of Anthropology, 11 (1982), 207-30;
20. Joseph C. Miller, "The Problem of Slavery as History," inaugural lecture of the David Brion Davis Lecture Series at the Gilder-Lehrman Center, Yale University, Feb. 7, 2005 (in Joseph C. Miller's possession);
21. James L. Watson, "Slavery as an Institution: Open and Closed Systems," in Asian and African Systems of Slavery, ed. James L. Watson (Oxford, 1980), 1-15.
22. Historical and anthropological discussion of African slavery is threaded throughout the text and notes of Brooks, Captives and Cousins. The annual Avignon Conference on Forced Labour and Slavery brings together scholars whose research ranges over times from antiquity to the recent past and over places across the globe to discuss systems of slavery in comparative perspective.
23. Discussing Claude Levi-Strauss's theory of marriage as a form of gift exchange, Gayle Rubin explained, "If it is women who are being transacted, then it is the men who give and take them who are linked, the woman being a conduit of a relationship rather than a partner to it." See Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex," in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York, 1975), 174.
24. Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford, 1988).
25. William C. Foster, ed., Johanna S. Warren, trans., The La Salle Expedition to Texas: The Journal of Henri Joutel, 1684-1687 (Austin, 1998), 227-29;
26. Fray Francisco Casanas de Jesus Maria to the Viceroy of Mexico, Aug. 15, 1691, in "Descriptions of the Tejas or Asinai Indians, 1691-1722," trans. Mattie Austin Hatcher, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 30 (Jan. 1927), 217;
27. Ralph A. Smith, trans. and ed., "Account of the Journey of Bénard de la Harpe: Discovery Made by Him of Several Nations Situated in the West," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, ibid., 62 (July 1958), 75-86;
28. Southwestern Historical Quarterly, ibid. (Oct. 1958), 246-59;
29. Southwestern Historical Quarterly, ibid. (Jan. 1959), 371-85;
30. Southwestern Historical Quarterly, ibid. (April 1959), 525-41;
31. David La Vere, The Caddo Chiefdoms: Caddo Economics and Politics, 700-1835 (Lincoln, 1998), 1-14, 33-35;
32. Timothy K. Perttula, "The Caddo Nation": Archaeological and Ethnohistoric Perspectives (Austin, 1992), 85, 217-20;
33. Karl Schmitt and Iva Osanai Schmitt, Wichita Kinship: Past and Present (Norman, n.d.), 23;
34. Gordon M. Sayre, Les Sauvages Américains: Representations of Native Americans in French and English Colonial Literature (Chapel Hill, 1997), 14, 266.
35. Henri de Tonti, "Memoir Sent in 1693, on the Discovery of the Mississippi and the Neighboring Nations by M. D. La Salle, from the year 1678 to the Time of his Death, and by the Sieur de Tonty to the year 1691," in The Journeys of Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, ed. Isaac Joslin Cox (2 vols., New York, 1973), I, 41-44, 46, esp. 42.
36. Juan de Ulibarri, "The Diary of Juan de Ulibarri to El Cuartelejo, 1706," in After Coronado: Spanish Exploration Northeast of New Mexico, 1696-1727, trans. Alfred Barnaby Thomas (Norman, 1935), 59-77;
37. Charles Wilson Hackett, trans., Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas (4 vols., Austin, 1931), II, 179-87;
38. Mildred Mott Wedel, The Wichita Indians, 1541-1750: Ethnohistorical Essays (Lincoln, 1988), 101;
39. Kate L. Gregg, "The Missouri Reader: Explorers in the Valley, Part II," Missouri Historical Review, 39 (July 1945), 511.
40. Gregg, "Missouri Reader," 512;
41. Smith, trans. and ed., "Account of the Journey of Bénard de la Harpe," 529;
42. Wedel, "Claude-Charles Dutisné," 102, 106.
43. Etienne de Bourgmont identified the Indians as "Padoucas"-a French ethnonym that some scholars have asserted referred to Comanches. But Thomas W. Kavanagh and other Plains historians have convincingly argued that until 1750 it described Apaches. Frank Norall, trans., "Journal of the Voyage of Monsieur de Bourgmont, Knight of the Military Order of Saint Louis, Commandant of the Missouri River [which is] above That of the Arkansas, and of the Missouri [Country], to the Padoucas," in Bourgmont, Explorer of the Missouri, 1698-1725, by Frank Norall (Lincoln, 1988), 125-61, esp. 152 and 154-55;
44. Henri Folmer, "De Bourgmont's Expedition to the Padoucas in 1724, the First French Approach to Colorado," Colorado Magazine, 14 (July 1937), 124-27;
45. Henri Folmer, "Etienne Véniard de Bourgmont in the Missouri Country," Missouri Historical Review, 36 (April 1942), 279-98;
46. Thomas W. Kavanagh, The Comanches: A History, 1706-1875 (Lincoln, 1996), 65-66.
47. Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, History and General Description of New France, trans. John Gilmary Shea (6 vols., New York, 1872), VI, 32-38;
48. Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1783 (Chapel Hill, 1992);
49. archival material from Correspondence Générale, French Dominion, Mississippi Provincial Archives, vol. IX, 111,
50. cited in Almon Wheeler Lauber, Indian Slavery in Colonial Times within the Present Limits of the United States (New York, 1913), 75;
51. Sieur Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, "Memoir on Louisiana, the Indians and the Commerce that Can Be Carried on widi Them," 1726, in Mississippi Provincial Archives, French Dominion, vol. III: 1704-1743, ed. Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders (Jackson, 1932), 532;
52. Russell Magnaghi, "Changing Material Culture and the Hasinai of East Texas,́ Southern Studies, 20 (Winter 1981);
53. W. W. Newcomb and W. T. Field, "An Ethnohistoric Investigation of the Wichita Indians in the Southern Plains," in Wichita Indian Archaeology and Ethnology: A Pilot Study, ed. Robert E. Bell, Edward B. Jelks, and W. W. Newcomb (New York, 1974).
54. Twenty member bands of these confederacies and at least three other independent Caddo bands clustered in fertile valleys along the Angelina, Neches, Sabine, and Red rivers. Town centers, surrounded by temple mounds built by the Caddoans' ancestors, still served as the residence of paramount chiefs and the locus for public gatherings and ceremony. People in the ranked, matrilineal societies, with well-developed political and ceremonial governing structures, lived in kin-based hamlets located near the agricultural fields radiating out from the town centers. La Vere, Caddo Chiefdoms;
55. Perttula, "Caddo Nation."
56. Agriculture played a central role in Wichitas' socioeconomics and tied them to their grass-lodge villages much of the year, but they spent the fall and winter in mobile camps while men hunted deer and bison. Their extensive crop cultivation and centralized role in French-Indian market exchange created subsistence and economic practices more sedentary than those of their Comanche neighbors. Wichita bands active in Texas included Tawakonis, Taovayas, Iscanis, Wacos, and Wichitas proper. Early French identification of Wichitas as "Panis Piques" or "Pani-piquets" in reference to their tattoos and linguistic similarities to Pawnees later confused distinctions between Wichitas and Pawnees (known simply as "Panis"). Pawnees, unlike Wichitas, constituted a significant number of the Plains Indians sold north into slavery in New France. W. W. Newcomb Jr., The People Called Wichita (Phoenix, 1976);
57. Elizabeth A. H. John, "A Wichita Migration Tale," American Indian Quarterly, 7 (Fall 1983), 57-63;
58. Susan C. Vehik, "Wichita Culture History," Plains Anthropologist, 37 (Nov. 1992), 311-32;
59. F. Todd Smith, The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540-1845 (College Station, 2000).
60. Comanches were a branch of northern Shoshones of the Great Basin region whose acquisition of horses had led to their rapid evolution into a mounted, mobile, military power. During the seventeenth century, Comanches had moved into the plains of eastern Colorado and western Kansas and then turned south, pulled by abundant bison herds, Spanish horses ready for the taking, and French trade goods ready for the bartering. Identified as eastern-dwelling bands of Kotsotekas and western-dwelling bands of Jupes and Yamparicas, Comanches operated as independent, kin-based hunting and gathering groups rather than as united confederacies like those of Caddo bands of east Texas and Wichita bands of northern Texas. Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History: An Ethnohistorical Perspective, 1706-1875 (Lincoln, 1996);
61. Morris Foster, Being Comanche: A Social History of an American Indian Community (Tucson, 1991);
62. Gerald Betty, Comanche Society: Before the Reservation (College Station, 2002);
63. D. B. Shimkin, "Shoshone-Comanche Origins and Migrations," in Proceedings of the Sixth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association (Berkeley, 1940), 17-25.
64. Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy, 116-22, 244-75;
65. Joseph Zitomersky, "The Form and Function of French-Native American Relations in Early Eighteenth-Century French Colonial Louisiana," in Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society, Martinique and Guadeloupe, May 1989, ed. Patricia Galloway and Philip P. Boucher (New York, 1992).
66. Clarence H. Webb and Hiram F. Gregory, The Caddo Indians of Louisiana (1978; Baton Rouge, 1986);
67. Hiram Ford Gregory, "Eighteenth Century Caddoan Archaeology: A Study in Models and Interpretation" (Ph.D. diss., Southern Methodist University, 1973);
68. Dayna Bowker Lee, "Indian Slavery in Lower Louisiana during the Colonial Period, 1699-1803" (M.A. thesis, Northwestern State University of Louisiana, 1989).
69. On reciprocity and political economies, see Patricia C. Albers, "Symbiosis, Merger, and War: Contrasting Forms of Intertribal Relationship among Historic Plains Indians," in The Political Economy of North American Indians, ed. John Moore (Lincoln, 1993), 94-132;
70. Marcel Mauss, The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, trans. W. D. Halls (1924; New York, 1954);
71. Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago, 1972);
72. and Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, trans. James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer, ed. Rodney Needham (1949; Boston, 1969).
73. La Vere, Caddo Chiefdoms;
74. Daniel A. Hickerson, "Trade, Mediation, and Political Status in the Hasinai Confederacy," Research in Economic Anthropology, 17 (1996), 149-68.
75. Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 177-97;
76. Louis Billouart de Kerlérec, "Projet de paix et d'alliance avec les Cannecis et les avantages qui en peuvent résulter, envoyé par Kerlérec, gouverneur de la province de la Louisianne, en 1753," in "Un Mémoire Politique du XVIII Siècle Relatif au Texas" (An eighteenth-century political memoir relating to Texas), by M. Le Baron Marc de Villiers du "Terrage, Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, 3 (1906), 67-76.
77. J. Leitch Wright, The Only Land They Knew: The Tragic Story of the American Indian in the Old South (New York, 1981);
78. Marcel Trudel, L'esclavage an Canada Français: Histoire et conditions de l'eschvage (Slavery in French Canada: History and conditions of slavery) (Quebec, 1960);
79. Brett Rushforth, "'A Little Flesh We Offer You': The Origins of Indian Slavery in New France," William and Mary Quarterly, 60 (Oct. 2003), 777-808;
80. Daniel H. Usner Jr., "From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana," Louisiana History, 20 (Winter 1979), 25-48;
81. James T. McGowan, "Planters without Slaves: Origins of a New World Labor System," Southern Studies, 16 (Spring 1977), 5-26;
82. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge, 1992);
83. Kimberly S. Hanger, Bounded Lives, Bounded Places: Free Black Society in Colonial New Orleans, 1769-1803 (Durham, 1997);
84. Gilbert C. Din, Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves: The Spanish Regulation of Slavery in Louisiana, 1765-1803 (College Station, 1999), 3-17.
85. Sleeper-Smith, Indian Women and French Men;
86. Brown, Strangers in Blood;
87. Peterson, "People In Between";
88. Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties;
89. Jennifer M. Spear, "'They Need Wives': Métissage and the Regulation of Sexuality in French Louisiana, 1699-1730," in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Hodes (New York, 1999).
90. For the statement of abbé Raynal, see Hackett, trans., Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas, I, 258.
91. Marcel Giraud, A History of French Louisiana, vol. II: Years of Transition, 1715-1717, trans. Brian Pearce (Baton Rouge, 1993), 129;
92. Jennifer M. Spear, "Colonial Intimacies: Legislating Sex in French Louisiana," William and Mary Quarterly, 60 (Jan. 2003), 75-98;
93. Carl A. Brasseaux, "The Moral Climate of French Colonial Louisiana, 1699-1763," Louisiana History, 27 (Winter 1986);
94. Carl A. Brasseaux, "The Administration of Slave Regulations in French Louisiana, 1724-1766," Louisiana History, ibid., 21 (Spring 1980);
95. Charles Edward O'Neill, Church and State in French Colonial Louisiana: Policy and Politics to 1732 (New Haven, 1966);
96. Mathé Allain, "Manon Lescaut et Ses Consoeurs: Women in the Early French Period, 1700-1731," in Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society, ed. James J. Cooke (Lanham, 1980);
97. Elizabeth Shown Mills, Natchitoches, 1729-1803: Abstracts of the Catholic Church Registers of the French and Spanish Post of St. Jean Baptiste des Natchitoches in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1977);
98. Bolton, trans. and ed., Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, I, 48, 64, 90, 91, 162, 168, II, 76;
99. Lee, "Indian Slavery in Lower Louisiana during the Colonial Period," 87, 92.
100. Peter Gerhard, The North Frontier of New Spain (Princeton, 1982), 328, 344-48;
101. Daniel T. Reff, Disease, Depopulation, and Cultural Change in Northwestern New Spain, 1518-1764 (Salt Lake City, 1991);
102. José Cuello, "The Persistence of Indian Slavery and Encomienda in the Northeast of Colonial Mexico, 1577-1723," Journal of Social History, 21 (Summer 1988), 683-700;
103. Susan M. Deeds, "Rural Work in Nueva Vizcaya: Forms of Labor Coercion on the Periphery," Hispanic American Historical Review, 69 (Aug. 1989), 425-49;
104. Peter Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546-1700 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971);
105. Vito Alessio Robles, Coahuilay Texas en la êpoca colonial (Coahuila and Texas in the colonial period) (Mexico City, 1978);
106. Silvio Zavala, Los Esclavos Indios en Nueva España (Indian Slaves in New Spain) (Mexico City, 1967), 179-349.
107. Brooks, Captives and Cousins;
108. L. R. Bailey, The Indian Slave Trade in the Southwest (Los Angeles, 1966);
109. Nancy Parrott Hickerson, The Jumanos: Hunters and Traders of the South Plains (Austin, 1994), 32-33, 48, 80, 103-4, 113-14;
110. Fray Damián Mazanet to Don Carlos de Sigüenza, 1690, in Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706, ed. Herbert Eugene Bolton (New York, 1916), 282.
111. Alfred Barnaby Thomas, trans., Alonso de Posada Report, 1686: A Description of the Area of the Present Southern United States in the Late Seventeenth Century (Pensacola, 1982), 36-37;
112. Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 121-42.
113. Thomas R. Hester, "Texas and Northeastern Mexico: An Overview," in Columbian Consequences, vol. I:
114. Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands West, ed. David Hurst Thomas (Washington, 1989), 191-211;
115. The Indians of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico: Selected Writings of Thomas Nolan Campbell (Austin, 1988);
116. Donald Chipman, Spanish Texas, 1519-1821 (Austin, 1992), 182-83, 205-7, 249-50.
117. Morris Edward Opler, "The Kinship Systems of the Southern Athabaskan-Speaking Tribes," American Anthropologist, 38 (Oct. 1936), 620-33;
118. Morris E. Opler, "Lipan Apache," in Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. XIII:
119. Plains, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, 2001), part 2, 941-52;
120. Thomas F. Schilz, Lipan Apaches in Texas (El Paso, 1987);
121. Dolores A. Gunnerson, The Jicarilla Appaches: A Study in Survival (DeKalb, 1974);
122. Gary Clayton Anderson, The Indian Southwest, 1580-1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention (Norman, 1999), 105-44;
123. José Cortés, Views from the Apache Frontier: Report on the Northern Provinces of New Spain, ed. Elizabeth A. H. John, trans. John Wheat (Norman, 1989).
124. William Edward Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas, 1718-1750," Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association, 14 (Jan. 1911), 198-274.
125. James William Brodman, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier (Philadelphia, 1986);
126. Jarbel Rodriguez, "Financing a Captives Ransom in Late Medieval Aragon," Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue, 9 (April 2003), 164-81;
127. Brooks, Captives and Cousins;
128. Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas";
129. Juliana Barr, "'Traces of Christians': A Spectrum of Indian Bondage in Spanish Texas," in Indian Slavery in Colonial America, ed. Alan Gallay (Lincoln, forthcoming).
130. Ana Maria Alonso, Thread of Blood: Colonialism, Revolution, and Gender on Mexico's Northern Frontier (Tucson, 1995), 37;
131. Fray Benito Fernandez de Santa Ana to Fray Guardian Pedro del Barco, Feb. 20, 1740, in The San José Papers: The Primary Sources for the History of Mission San José y San Miguel de Aguayo from Its Founding in 1720 to the Present, part I: 1719-1791, trans. Benedict Leutenegger, ed. Marion A. Habig (San Antonio, 1978), 64;
132. Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches, June 28, 1738, Béxar Archives (Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin);
133. Fray Benito Fernández de Santa Ana to Viceroy Archbishop Juan Antonio de Vizarron, June 30, 1737, in Letters and Memorials of the Father Presidente Fray Benito Fernández de Santa Ana, 1736-1754: Documents on the Missions of Texas from the Archives of the College of Querétaro, ed. Benedict Leutenegger (San Antonio, 1981), 26-27.
134. Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 121-42;
135. Gilberto M. Hinojosa and Anne A. Fox, "Indians and Their Culture in San Fernando de Béxar," in Tejano Origins in Eighteenth-Century San Antonio, ed. Gerald E. Poyo and Gilberto M. Hinojosa (Austin, 1991), 109-10;
136. Jesus F. de la Teja, San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier (Albuquerque, 1995), 122-23.
137. Don Prudencio de Orobio y Bazterra, Order for Investigation and Questionnaire, June 25, 1738, Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches;
138. Testimony of lieutenant Mateo Pérez, chief constable Vicente Alvarez Travieso, captain José de Urrutia, alférez Juan Galván, and corporal Juan Cortina, June 26-28, 1738, Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches; ibid.;
139. Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas," 244-45.
140. Testimony of Mateo Perez, Vicente Alvarez Travieso, and José de Urrutia, Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches;
141. Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas," 245-47.
142. Statement of Don Prudencio de Orobio y Bazterra, Aug. 18, 1738, Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches;
143. Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas," 245-46.
144. Order of Governor Don Prudencio de Orobio y Bazterra, Feb. 16, 1739, Proceedings concerning the Infidelity of the Apaches; Benito de Fernandez de Santa Ana to Viceroy Archbishop Juan Antonio de Vizarron, Nov. 24, 1739, in Letters and Memorials of the Father Presidente Fray Benito de Fernandez de Santa Ana, ed. Leutenegger, 32.
145. Max L. Moorhead, "Spanish Deportation of Hostile Apaches: The Policy and the Practice," Arizona and the West, 17 (Autumn 1975), 210-11, 215, 217.
146. Dunn, "Apache Relations in Texas," 248-62;
147. Elizabeth A. H. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds: The Confrontations of Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795 (College Station, 1975), 273-303, 336-405.
148. Casańas de Jesús María to the Viceroy of Mexico, Aug. 15, 1691, in "Descriptions of the Tejas or Asinai Indians, 1691-1722," trans. Hatcher, 208;
149. Juan Bautista Chapa, Texas and Northeastern Mexico, 1630-1690, ed. William C. Foster, trans. Ned F. Brierley (Austin, 1997);
150. Fray Francisco Hidalgo to the Viceroy, Nov. 4, 1716, in "Descriptions of the Tejas or Asinai Indians, 1691-1722," trans. Mattie Austin Hatcher, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 31 (July 1927), 60;
151. Fray Isidro de Espinosa, "Ramóns Expedition: Espinosa's Diary of 1716," trans. Gabriel Tous, Preliminary Studies of the Texas Catholic Historical Society, 1 (April 1930), 4-24;
152. Don Domingo Ramón, "Captain Don Domingo Ramón's Diary of his Expedition into Texas in 1716," trans. Paul J. Foik, Preliminary Studies of the Texas Catholic Historical Society, ibid., 2 (April 1933), 3-23;
153. Fray Francisco Celiz, Diary of the Alarcon Expedition into Texas, 1718-1719, trans. Fritz Hoffmann (Los Angeles, 1935), 83.
154. Don Antonio Valverde y Cosio, Governor of New Mexico, to Marquis de Valero, Nov. 3, 1719, in Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas, trans. Hackett, I, 193, 206;
155. Testimonies of Luis Febre, Pedro Satren and Joseph Miguel Riballo before Governor Tomás Vélez Cachupin, April 13, 1749, and March 5, 1750, in Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas, ibid., III, 299-320;
156. testimony of Felipe de Sandoval, March l, 1750, in Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas, ibid., 320-24;
157. Statement of Antonio Trevino to Governor Angel Martos y Navarrete, July 13, 1765, Béxar Archives.
158. Pedro de Rivera, "Diary and Itinerary of What Was Seen and Examined During the General Inspection of Presidios in the Interior Provinces of New Spain," in Imaginary Kingdom: Texas as Seen by the Rivera and Rubí Military Expeditions, 1727 and 1767, ed. Jack Jackson (Austin, 1995), 35;
159. Marqués de Rubí, "Dictamen of April 10, 1768," trans. Ned. F. Brierley, Imaginary Kingdom: Texas as Seen by the Rivera and Rubí Military Expeditions, 1727 and 1767, ibid., 182-83;
160. Paul D. Nathan, trans., Lesley Byrd Simpson, ed., The San Sabá Papers: A Documentary Account of the Founding and Destruction of San Sabd Mission (San Francisco, 1959), 71, 107-15, 136, 145.
161. Alexandra O'Reilly, Proclamation, Dec. 7, 1769, in Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794, ed. Lawrence Kinnaird (Washington, 1949), II, 126-27;
162. Alejandro O'Reilly to Athanase de Mézières, Jan. 23, 1770, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, ed. and trans. Bolton, I, 135-36, 152;
163. de Mézières to Governor of Louisiana Luis Unzaga y Amezaga, May 20, 1770, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, ibid., 166-68, esp. 166.
164. On the actions of François Morvant, Jacque Ridde, and Pierre Raimond in 1770, see Lee, "Indian Slavery in Lower Louisiana during the Colonial Period," 83-85;
165. and Mills, Natchitoches, 1729-1803, entries 1016, 1101, 1619, 1953, 2297, 2901. For the first and last appearances of the Morvant family in the town censuses, see Censuses of Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Nacogdoches for 1784 and 1805, Béxar Archives.
166. Stephen Webre, "The Problem of Indian Slavery in Spanish Louisiana," Louisiana History, 25 (Spring 1984), 117-35;
167. Hans W. Baade, "The Law of Slavery in Spanish Louisiana, 1769-1803," in Louisiana's Legal Heritage, ed. Edward F. Haas (Pensacola, 1983), 43-86;
168. Winston de Ville, ed., Natchitoches Documents, 1732-1785: A Calendar of Civil Records from Fort St. Jean Baptiste in the French and Spanish Province of Louisiana (Ville Platte, 1994), 10, 17, 35.
169. Present-day Ebarb in Sabine Parish in northwestern Louisiana is populated by descendants of enslaved Lipan Apaches, indigenous Caddos, and immigrant Choctaws, and Louisiana officially recognizes the Choctaw-Apache People of Ebarb among the state's American Indian groups. See Official Home Page of the Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Louisiana 〈http://cate.50megs.com/index.htm〉 (March 24, 2005).
170. N. M. Miller Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Régime, 1699-1763 (New York, 1916), 226-49;
171. Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy, 116-22, 244-75.
172. On Maria Modesta, see Mills, Natchitoches, 1729-1803, entries 2391, 2876, 2973.
173. On Therese, see Natchitoches, 1729-1803, ibid., entries 2392, 2447, 2992, 3448.
174. On Marie Rosalie, see Natchitoches, 1729-1803, ibid., entries 2354, 2425, 2524, 2863, 3013, 3394.
175. See also Elizabeth Shown Mills, Natchitoches, 1800-1826: Translated Abstracts of Register Number Five of the Catholic Church Parish of St. François des Natchitoches in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1980), entry 43 for Marie Modesta;
176. and Elizabeth Shown Mills, Natchitoches Colonials: Censuses, Military Rolls, and Tax Lists, 1722-1803 (Chicago, 1981).
177. Gary B. Mills, The Forgotten People: Cane River's Creoles of Color (Baton Rouge, 1977), 50-51, 83-88;
178. H. Sophie Burton, "Free People of Color in Spanish Colonial Natchitoches: Manumission and Dependency on the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1766-1803," Louisiana History, 45 (Spring 2004), 180;
179. Charles R. Maduell, The Census Tables for the French Colony of Louisiana from 1699-1732 (Baltimore, 1972);
180. Elizabeth Shown Mills, "Social and Family Patterns on the Colonial Louisiana Frontier," Sociological Spectrum, 2 (July-Dec. 1982), 238.
181. John Sibley, "Historical Sketches of the several Indian tribes in Louisiana, south of the Arkansas river, and between the Mississippi and river Grande," 1806, in American State Papers, vol. I (Washington, 1832), 721-31, esp. 723;
182. Pueblo de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Nacogdoches: List of Families in the Said Pueblo Taken by Captain and ommandant, Don José Joaquín Ugarte," Jan. 1, 1804, Béxar Archives;
183. "Report of the Missions Occupied by the Priest of the College of Our Lady of Guadalupe de Zacatecas in Said Province [Texas], Their Progress to the End of 1804 ...," Dec. 31, 1804, Béxar Archives; ibid.;
184. "Pueblo of Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Nacogdoches: Census of the families who live in the aforesaid pueblo, compiled by Commandant José Joaquín Ugarte," Jan. 1, 1805, Béxar Archives; ibid.;
185. José María Guadiana, "Jurisdiction of the Pueblo de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Nacogdoches: Houses located on the eastern side of the Sabinas River," Nov. 1805, Béxar Archives; ibid.;
186. Sebastian Rodriguez, "Pueblo de Nuestra Señora de Pilar of Nacogdoches: Census of the families living in said town and its jurisdiction," Jan. 1, 1806, Béxar Archives; ibid.;
187. "Report on the Barbarous Indians of the Province of Texas, Dec. 27, 1819," in "Texas in 1820," trans. Mattie Austin Hatcher, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 23 (July 1919), 47-53.
188. A few men did register their paternity of children at baptism, see, for example, the children of Pierre Sebastian Prudhomme and Naillois, "an Indian woman," and Jean Baptiste Samuel and Jeanne, "a woman of the Canneci (Apache) nation," in Mills, Natchitoches, 1729-1803, entries 2245, 3444, 3049.
189. For uses of women as objects of exchange, see Lee, "Indian Slavery in Lower Louisiana during the Colonial Period."
190. Moorhead, "Spanish Deportation of Hostile Apaches";
191. Christon I. Archer, "The Deportation of Barbarian Indians from the Internal Provinces of New Spain, 1789-1810," Americas, 29 (Jan. 1973), 376-85.
192. Barón de Ripperdá to Bucareli y Ursúa, July 5, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, trans. and ed. Bolton, I, 322.
193. Ripperdá to Bucareli y Ursúa, March 30, 1773, Béxar Archives; Ripperdá to Bucareli y Ursúa, July 5, Aug. 2, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, trans. and ed. Bolton, I, 322, 335;
194. Ripperdá to governor of Louisiana Unzaga y Amezaga, Sept. 8, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, ibid., 348.
195. Bucareli y Ursúa to Ripperdá, March 24, April 28, 1772, Béxar Archives; Ripperdá to Unzaga y Amezaga, May 26, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, trans. and ed. Bolton, I, 273.
196. Bucareli y Ursúa to Ripperdá, June 16, 1772, Béxar Archives;
197. Ripperdá to Unzaga y Amezaga, May 26, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, trans. and ed. Bolton, I, 274.
198. Ripperdá to Bucareli y Ursúa, July 5, 1772, in Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, trans. and ed. Bolton, I, 321-22.
199. Fray Juan Domingo Arricivita, Apostolic Chronicle of Juan Domingo Arricivita: The Franciscan Mission Frontier in the Eighteenth Century in Arizona, Texas, and the Californias, trans. George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey (2 vols., Berkeley, 1996), II, 25.
200. Though long identified as indigenous to Texas, Tonkawas, like Comanches and Wichitas, appear to have been Plains peoples who migrated south into present-day Texas in the late seventeenth century. Living up to their name "Tonkawa" (a Wichita [Waco] name meaning "they all stay together"), they had joined with other cultural and linguistic groups for defense by the late eighteenth century. Tonkawas and their new allies lived in nonsedentary hunting and gathering communities that were organized into matrilineal clans, with many clans representing once-autonomous groups of Mayeye, Yojuane, Ervipiame, Sana, and Tonkawa proper. Domingo Cabello to commandant general of the Interior Provinces, Teodoro de Croix, March 18, 1779, Béxar Archives;
201. William W. Newcomb Jr. and Thomas N. Campbell, "Tonkawa," in Handbook of North American Indians, XIII, ed. DeMallie, part 2, 953-64.
202. Christo"bel Hilario de Co"rdoba, Interim Lieutenant at Nacogdoches, Report, Aug. 26, 1786, Béxar Archives.
203. For Spanish captives in Indian hands on other Spanish frontiers, see Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 179-93;
204. and Susan Migden Socolow, "Spanish Captives in Indian Societies: Cultural Contact along the Argentine Frontier, 1600-1835," Hispanic American Historical Review, 72 (Feb. 1992), 73-99.
205. Cabello to commandant general Felipe de Neve, Aug. 3, 1784, Béxar Archives.
206. Archer, "Deportation of Barbarian Indians from the Internal Provinces of New Spain";
207. Al B. Nelson, "Juan de Ugalde and Picax-Ande Ins-Tinsle, 1787-1788," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 43 (April 1940), 450;
208. Jean Louis Berlandier, The Indians of Texas in 1830, ed. John C. Ewers, trans. Patricia Reading Leclercq (Washington, 1969), 41.