Quantifying potential health impacts of cadmium in cigarettes on smoker risk of lung cancer: A portfolio-of-mechanisms approach

Risk Analysis

Volumn 26, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 1581-1599

  Cox Jr , Louis Anthony ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

Biologically based cancer risk assessment; Cadmium; Co carcinogenesis; Lung cancer; Two stage clonal expansion stochastic model

Indexed keywords

CADMIUM; CELLS; CIGARETTE FILTERS; RISK ASSESSMENT; TUMORS; UNCERTAIN SYSTEMS;

BIOLOGICALLY BASED CANCER RISK ASSESSMENT; CO-CARCINOGENESIS; LUNG CANCER; TWO-STAGE CLONAL EXPANSION STOCHASTIC MODEL;

HEALTH RISKS;

CADMIUM; CARCINOGEN; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON;

CADMIUM; CANCER; CELLS AND CELL COMPONENTS; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HEALTH IMPACT; HEALTH RISK; SMOKE; SMOKING; TUMOR;

ARTICLE; CANCER RISK; CELL DEATH; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL TRANSFORMATION; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DNA REPAIR; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; LUNG CARCINOGENESIS; NONHUMAN; RISK MANAGEMENT; STEADY STATE;

ANIMALS; CADMIUM; CELL PROLIFERATION; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; DNA REPAIR; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; RATS; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; RISK; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING; STOCHASTIC PROCESSES;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 33845677789     PISSN: 02724332     EISSN: 15396924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00848.x     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Abshire, M. K., Devor, D. E., Diwan, B. A., Shaughnessy, J. D., Jr., & Waalkes, M. P. (1996). In vitro exposure to cadmium in rat L6 myoblasts can result in both enhancement and suppression of malignant progression in vivo. Carcinogenesis, 17(6), 1349-1356.
2. Ades, A. E., & Kazantzis, G. (1988). Lung cancer in a non-ferrous smelter: The role of cadmium. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 45(7), 435-442.
3. Alexandrov, K., Cascorbi, I., Rojas, M., Bouvier, G., Kriek, E., & Bartsch, H. (2002). CYP1A1 and GSTM1 genotypes affect benzo[a]pyrene DNA adducts in smokers' lung: Comparison with aromatic/hydrophobic adduct formation. Carcinogenesis, 23(12), 1969-1977.
4. Ariyoshi, N., Miyamoto, M., Umetsu, Y., Kunitoh, H., Dosaka-Akita, H., Sawamura, Y., Yokota, J., Nemoto, N., Sato, K., & Kamataki, T. (2002). Genetic polymorphism of CYP2A6 gene and tobacco-induced lung cancer risk in male smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 11(9), 890-894.
5. Asvadi, S., & Hayes, J. A. (1978). Acute lung injury induced by cadmium aerosol. II. Free airway cell response during injury and repair. American Journal of Pathology, 90(1), 89-98.
6. Bajpai, R., Waseem, M., Khanna, A. K., & Kaw, J. L. (1999). Comparative pulmonary toxicity of cadmium and nickel: Histopathological and bronchoalveolar lavage analysis. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 37(6), 541-545.
7. Beyersmann, D. (2002). Effects of carcinogenic metals on gene expression. Toxicology Letters, 127(1-3), 63-68.
8. Beyersmann, D., & Hechtenberg, S. (1997). Cadmium, gene regulation, and cellular signalling in mammalian cells. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 144(2), 247-261.
9. Chan-Yeung, M., Tan-Un, K. C., Ip, M. S., Tsang, K. W., Ho, S. P., Ho, J. C., Chan, H., & Lam, W. K. (2004). Lung cancer susceptibility and polymorphisms of glutathione-S-transferase genes in Hong Kong. Lung Cancer, 45(2), 155-160.
10. Chevillard, S., Radicella, J. P., Levalois, C., Lebeau, J., Poupon, M. F., Oudard, S., Dutrillaux, B., & Boiteux, S. (1998). Mutations in OGG1, a gene involved in the repair of oxidative DNA damage, are found in human lung and kidney tumours. Oncogene, 16(23), 3083-3086.
11. Cox, L. A. Jr. (1992). Extending the stochastic two-stage model of carcinogenesis to include self-regulation of the nonmalignant cell population. Risk Analsis, 12(1), 129-138.
12. Elinder, C. G., Kjellstrom, T., Hogstedt, C., Andersson, K., & Spang, G. (1985). Cancer mortality of cadmium workers. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 42(10), 651-655.
13. Fan, R., Wu, M. T., Miller, D., Wain, J. C., Kelsey, K. T., Wiencke, J. K., & Christiani, D. C. (2000). The p53 codon 72 polymorphism and lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 9(10), 1037-1042.
14. Fang, M. Z., Mar, W., & Cho, M. H. (2002). Cadmium affects genes involved in growth regulation during two-stage transformation of Balb/3T3 cells. Toxicology, 177(2-3), 253-265.
15. Fujieda, M., et al. (2004). Evaluation of CYP2A6 genetic polymorphisms as determinants of smoking behavior and tobacco related lung cancer risk in male Japanese smokers. Carcinogenesis.
16. Gairola, C. G., & Wagner, G. J. (1991). Cadmium accumulation in the lung, liver and kidney of mice and rats chronically exposed to cigarette smoke. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 11(5), 355-358.
17. Gaubin, Y., Vaissade, F., Croute, F., Beau, B., Soleilhavoup, J., & Murat, J. (2000). Implication of free radicals and glutathione in the mechanism of cadmium-induced expression of stress proteins in the A549 human lung cell-line. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta, 1495(1), 4-13.
18. Gerhardsson, L., Brune, D., Nordberg, G. F., & Wester, P. O. (1986). Distribution of cadmium, lead and zinc in lung, liver and kidney in long-term exposed smelter workers. Science of the Total Environment, 50, 65-85.
19. Glaser, U., Kloppel, H., & Hochrainer, D. (1986). Bioavailability indicators of inhaled cadmium compounds. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 11(3), 261-271.
20. Gopalakrishna, R., Chen, Z. H., & Gundimeda, U. (1994). Tobacco smoke tumor promoters, catechol and hydroquinone, induce oxidative regulation of protein kinase C and influence invasion and metastasis of lung carcinoma cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91(25), 12233-12237.
21. Grasseschi, R. M., Ramaswamy, R. B., Levine, D. J., Klaassen, C. D., & Wesselius, L. J. (2003). Cadmium accumulation and detoxification by alveolar macrophages of cigarette smokers. Chest, 124(5), 1924-1928.
22. Grose, E. C., Richards, J. H., Jaskot, R. H., Menache, M. G., Graham, J. A., & Dauterman, W. C. (1987). A comparative study of the effects of inhaled cadmium chloride and cadmium oxide: Pulmonary response. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 21(1-2), 219-232.
23. Hart, B. A., Potts, R. J., & Watkin, R. D. (2001). Cadmium adaptation in the lung - A double-edged sword? Toxicology, 160(1-3), 65-70.
24. Hart, B. A., Voss, G. W., & Willean, C. L. (1989). Pulmonary tolerance to cadmium following cadmium aerosol pretreatment. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 101(3), 447-460.
25. Hazelton, W. D., Clements, M. S., & Moolgavkar, S. H. (2005). Multistage carcinogenesis and lung cancer mortality in three cohorts. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 14(5), 1171-1181.
26. Hazelton, W. D., Luebeck, E. G., Heidenreich, W. F., & Moolgavkar, S. H. (2001). Analysis of a historical cohort of Chinese tin miners with arsenic, radon, cigarette smoke, and pipe smoke exposures using the biologically based two-stage clonal expansion model. Radiation Research, 156(1), 78-94.
27. Heinrich, U. (1992). Pulmonary carcinogenicity of cadmium by inhalation in animals. IARC Scientific Publications, (118), 405-413.
28. Hernandez-Boussard, T. M., & Hainaut, P. (1998). A specific spectrum of p53 mutations in lung cancer from smokers: Review of mutations compiled in the IARC p53 database. Environmental Health Perspectives, 106(7), 385-391. Erratum in: Environmental Health Perspectives (1998), 106(9),A 421.
29. Hertz-Picciotto, I., & Hu, S. W. (1994). Contribution of cadmium in cigarettes to lung cancer: An evaluation of risk assessment methodologies. Archives of Environmental Health, 49(4), 297-302.
30. Hiraki, A., Matsuo, K., Hamajima, N., Ito, H., Hatooka, S., Suyama, M., Mitsudomi, T., & Tajima, K. (2003). Different risk relations with smoking for non-small-cell lung cancer: Comparison of TP53 and TP73 genotypes. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 4(2), 107-112.
31. Hou, S. M., Falt, S., & Nyberg, F. (2001). Glutathione S-transferase T1-null genotype interacts synergistically with heavy smoking on lung cancer risk. Environ Mol Mutagen, 38(1), 83-86.
32. Hung, R. J., Boffetta, P., Brockmoller, J., Butkiewicz, D., Cascorbi, I., Clapper, M. L., Garte, S., Haugen, A., Hirvonen, A., Anttila, S., Kalina, I., Le Marchand, L., London, S. J., Rannug, A., Romkes, M., Salagovic, J., Schoket, B., Gaspari, L., & Taioli, E. (2003). CYP1A1 and GSTM1 genetic polymorphisms and lung cancer risk in Caucasian non-smokers: A pooled analysis. Carcinogenesis, 24(5), 875-882.
33. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). (1993). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vo. 58. Beryllium, Cadmium, Mercury and Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry (pp. 119-238). Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
34. Irarrazabal, C. E., Rojas, C., Aracena, R., Marquez, C., & Gil, L. (2003). Chilean pilot study on the risk of lung cancer associated with codon 72 polymorphism in the gene of protein p53. Toxicology Letters, 144(1), 69-76.
35. Jarup, L., Bellander, T., Hogstedt, C., & Spang, G. (1998). Mortality and cancer incidence in Swedish battery workers exposed to cadmium and nickel. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 55(11), 755-759.
36. Joseph, P., Muchnok, T. K., Klishis, M. L., Roberts, J. R., Antonini, J. M., Whong, W. Z., & Ong, T. (2001). Cadmium-induced cell transformation and tumorigenesis are associated with transcriptional activation of c-fos, c-jun, and c-myc proto-oncogenes: Role of cellular calcium and reactive oxygen species. Toxicological Sciences, 61(2), 295-303.
37. Jourenkova-Mironova, N., Wikman, H., Bouchardy, C., Voho, A., Dayer, P., Benhamou, S., & Hirvonen, A. (1998). Role of glutathione S-transferase GSTM1, GSTM3, GSTP1 and GSTT1 genotypes in modulating susceptibility to smoking-related lung cancer. Pharmacogenetics, 8(6), 495-502.
38. Kollmeier, H., Seemann, J., Wittig, P., Rothe, G., & Muller, K. M. (1990). Cadmium in human lung tissue. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 62(5), 373-377.
39. Lag, M., Westly, S., Lerstad, T., Bjornsrud, C., Refsnes, M., & Schwarze, P. E. (2002). Cadmium-induced apoptosis of primary epithelial lung cells: Involvement of Bax and p53, but not of oxidative stress. Cell Biology and Toxicology, 18(1), 29-42.
40. Lan, Q., Mumford, J. L., Shen, M., DeMarini, D. M., Bonner, M. R., He, X., Yeager, M., Welch, R., Chanock, S., Tian, L., Chapman, R. S., Zheng, T., Keohavong, P., Caporaso, N., & Rothman, N. (2004). Oxidative damage-related genes AKR1C3 and OGG1 modulate risks for lung cancer due to exposure to PAH-rich coal combustion emissions. Carcinogenesis, 25(11), 2177-2181.
41. Le Marchand, L., Donlon, T., Lum-Jones, A., Seifried, A., & Wilkens, L. R. (2002). Association of the hOGG1 Ser326Cys polymorphism with lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 11(4), 409-412.
42. Lewis, P. D., & Parry, J. M. (2004). In silico p53 mutation hotspots in lung cancer. Carcinogenesis, 25(7), 1099-1107.
43. Lewis, S. J., Cherry, N. M., Niven, R. M., Barber, P. V., & Povey, A. C. (2002). GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 polymorphisms and lung cancer risk. Cancer Letters, 180(2), 165-171.
44. Li, D., Firozi, P. F., Wang, L. E., Bosken, C. H., Spitz, M. R., Hong, W. K., & Wei, Q. (2001). Sensitivity to DNA damage induced by benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide and risk of lung cancer: A case-control analysis. Cancer Research, 61(4), 1445-1450. Erratum in: Cancer Research (2001), 61(8), 3531.
45. Lin, P., Hsueh, Y. M., Ko, J. L., Liang, Y. F., Tsai, K. J., & Chen, C. Y. (2003). Analysis of NQO1, GSTP1, and MnSOD genetic polymorphisms on lung cancer risk in Taiwan. Lung Cancer, 40(2), 123-129.
46. Lodovici, M. et al. (1998). Benzo[a]pyrene diol-epoxide DNA adducts and levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in autoptic samples from human lungs. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 116(3), 199-212.
47. Loriot, M. A., Rebuissou, S., Oscarson, M., Cenee, S., Miyamoto, M., Ariyoshi, N., Kamataki, T., Hemon, D., Beaune, P., & Stucker, I. (2001). Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2A6 in a case-control study on lung cancer in a French population. Pharmacogenetics, 11(1), 39-44.
48. Luebeck, E. G., Heidenreich, W. F., Hazelton, W. D., Paretzke, H. G., & Moolgavkar, S. H. (1999). Biologically based analysis of the data for the Colorado uranium miners cohort: Age, dose and dose-rate effects. Radiation Research, 152(4), 339-351.
49. Mancini, N. M., Bene, M. C., Gerard, H., Chabot, F., Faure, G., Polu, J. M., & Lesur, O. (1993). Early effects of short-time cigarette smoking on the human lung: A study of bronchoalveolar lavage fluids. Lung, 171(5), 277-291.
50. McKenna, I. M., Gordon, T., Chen, L. C., Anver, M. R., & Waalkes, M. P. (1998). Expression of metallothionein protein in the lungs of Wistar rats and C57 and DBA mice exposed to cadmium oxide fumes. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 153(2), 169-178.
51. Minna, J. D., Fong, K., Zochbauer-Muller, S., & Gazdar, A. F. (2002). Molecular pathogenesis of lung cancer and potential translational applications. Cancer Journal, 8(Suppl 1), S41-S46.
52. Moolgavkar, S. H., Luebeck, E. G., Krewski, D., & Zielinski, J. M. (1993). Radon, cigarette smoke, and lung cancer: A re-analysis of the Colorado Plateau uranium miners' data. Epidemiology, 4(3), 204-217.
53. Mukherjee, J. J., Gupta, S. K., Kumar, S., & Sikka, H. C. (2004). Effects of cadmium(II) on (+/-)-anti-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide- induced DNA damage response in human fibroblasts and DNA repair: A possible mechanism of cadmium's cogenotoxicity. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 17(3), 287-293.
54. Nawrot, T., Plusquin, M., Hogervorst, J., Roels, H. A., Celis, H., Thijs, L., Vangronsveld, J., Van Hecke, E., & Staessen, J. A. (2006). Environmental exposure to cadmium and risk of cancer: A prospective population-based study. Lancet Oncology, 7(2), 119-126.
55. Oberdorster, G. (1992). Pulmonary deposition, clearance and effects of inhaled soluble and insoluble cadmium compounds. IARC Scientific Publications, (118), 189-204.
56. Oberdorster, G., Cherian, M. G., & Baggs, R. B. (1994). Correlation between cadmium-induced pulmonary carcinogenicity, metallothionein expression, and inflammatory processes: A species comparison. Environmental Health Perspectives, 102(Suppl 3), 257-263.
57. Paakko, P., Kokkonen, P., Anttila, S., & Kalliomaki, P. L. (1989). Cadmium and chromium as markers of smoking in human lung tissue. Environmental Research, 49(2), 197-207.
58. Palmer, K. C., Snider, G. L., & Hayes, J. A. (1975). Cellular proliferation induced in the lung by cadmium aerosol. American Review of Respiratory Disease, 112(2), 173-179.
59. Park, J., Chen, L., Tockman, M. S., Elahi, A., & Lazarus, P. (2004). The human 8-oxoguanine DNA N-glycosylase 1 (hOGG1) DNA repair enzyme and its association with lung cancer risk. Pharmacogenetics, 14(2), 103-109.
60. Paz-Elizur, T., Krupsky, M., Blumenstein, S., Elinger, D., Schechtman, E., & Livneh, Z. (2003). DNA repair activity for oxidative damage and risk of lung cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 95(17), 1312-1319.
61. Pearson, C. A., & Prozialeck, W. C. (2001). E-Cadherin, beta-Catenin and cadmium carcinogenesis. Medical Hypotheses, 56(5), 573-581.
62. Potts, R. J., Bespalov, I. A., Wallace, S. S., Melamede, R. J., & Hart, B. A. (2001). Inhibition of oxidative DNA repair in cadmium-adapted alveolar epithelial cells and the potential involvement of metallothionein. Toxicology, 161(1-2), 25-38.
63. Potts, R. J., Watkin, R. D., & Hart, B. A. (2003). Cadmium exposure down-regulates 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase expression in rat lung and alveolar epithelial cells. Toxicology, 184(2-3), 189-202.
64. Pourahmad, J., O'Brien, P. J., Jokar, F., & Daraei, B. (2003). Carcinogenic metal induced sites of reactive oxygen species formation in hepatocytes. Toxicology In Vitro, 17(5-6), 803-810.
65. Rahman, I., & MacNee, W. (1999). Lung glutathione and oxidative stress: Implications in cigarette smoke-induced airway disease. American Journal of Physiology, 277(6 Pt 1), L1067-L1088.
66. Ramirez, D. C., & Gimenez, M. S. (2003). Induction of redox changes, inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 by chronic cadmium exposure in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Toxicology Letters, 145(2), 121-132.
67. Rojas, M., Marie, B., Vignaud, J. M., Martinet, N., Siat, J., Grosdidier, G., Cascorbi, I., & Alexandrov, K. (2004). High DNA damage by benzo[a]pyrene 7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide in bronchial epithelial cells from patients with lung cancer: Comparison with lung parenchyma. Cancer Letters, 207(2), 157-163.
68. Sakumi, K., Tominaga, Y., Furuichi, M., Xu, P., Tsuzuki, T., Sekiguchi, M., & Nakabeppu, Y. (2003). OGG1 knockout-associated lung tumorigenesis and its suppression by Mth1 gene disruption. Cancer Research, 63(5), 902-905.
69. Salagovic, J., Kalina, I., Stubna, J., Habalova, V., Hrivnak, M., Valansky, L., Kohut, A., & Biros, E. (1998). Genetic polymorphism of glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 as a risk factor in lung and bladder cancers. Neoplasma, 45(5), 312-317.
70. Schneider, J., Bernges, U., Philipp, M., & Woitowitz, H. J. (2004). GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 polymorphism and lung cancer risk in relation to tobacco smoking. Cancer Letters, 208(1), 65-74.
71. Shih, C. M., Wu, J. S., Ko, W. C., Wang, L. F., Wei, Y. H., Liang, H. F., Chen, Y. C., & Chen, C. T. (2003). Mitochondria-mediated caspase-independent apoptosis induced by cadmium in normal human lung cells. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 89(2), 335-347.
72. Shin, H. J., Lee, B. H., Yeo, M. G., Oh, S. H., Park, J. D., Park, K. K., Chung, J. H., Moon, C. K., & Lee, M. O. (2004). Induction of orphan nuclear receptor Nur77 gene expression and its role in cadmium-induced apoptosis in lung. Carcinogenesis, 25(8), 1467-1475.
73. Shinmura, K., & Yokota, J. (2001). The OGG1 gene encodes a repair enzyme for oxidatively damaged DNA and is involved in human carcinogenesis. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling, 3(4), 597-609.
74. Shukla, G. S., Chiu, J., & Hart, B. A. (2000). Cadmium-induced elevations in the gene expression of the regulatory subunit of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase in rat lung and alveolar epithelial cells. Toxicology, 151(1-3), 45-54.
75. Sorahan, T., & Esmen, N. A. (2004). Lung cancer mortality in UK nickel-cadmium battery workers, 1947-2000. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61(2), 108-116.
76. Sorahan, T., & Lancashire, R. J. (1997). Lung cancer mortality in a cohort of workers employed at a cadmium recovery plant in the United States: An analysis with detailed job histories. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 54(3), 194-201.
77. Sorensen, M., Autrup, H., Tjonneland, A., Overvad, K., & Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2004). Glutathione S-transferase T1 null-genotype is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. International Journal of Cancer, 110(2), 219-224.
78. Spruill, M. D., Song, B., Whong, W. Z., & Ong, T. (2002). Protooncogene amplification and overexpression in cadmiuminduced cell transformation. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, 65(24), 2131-2144.
79. Stayner, L., Smith, R., Thun, M., Schnorr, T., & Lemen, R. (1992a). A dose-response analysis and quantitative assessment of lung cancer risk and occupational cadmium exposure. Annals of Epidemiology, 2(3), 177-194.
80. Stayner, L., Smith, R., Thun, M., Schnorr, T., & Lemen, R. (1992b). Aquantitative assessment of lung cancer risk and occupational cadmium exposure. IARC Scientific Publications, (118), 447-455.
81. St Clair, D. K., Jordan, J. A., Wan, X. S., & Gairola, C. G. (1994). Protective role of manganese superoxide dismutase against cigarette smoke-induced cytotoxicity. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 43(2), 239-249.
82. Stohs, S. J., Bagchi, D., Hassoun, E., & Bagchi, M. (2001). Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of chromium and cadmium ions. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 20(2), 77-88.
83. Stucker, I., Hirvonen, A., de Waziers, I., Cabelguenne, A., Mitrunen, K., Cenee, S., Koum-Besson, E., Hemon, D., Beaune, P., & Loriot, M. A. (2002). Genetic polymorphisms of glutathione S-transferases as modulators of lung cancer susceptibility. Carcinogenesis, 23(9), 1475-1481.
84. Sunaga, N., Kohno, T., Yanagitani, N., Sugimura, H., Kunitoh, H., Tamura, T., Takei, Y., Tsuchiya, S., Saito, R., & Yokota, J. (2002). Contribution of the NQO1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms to lung adenocarcinoma susceptibility. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 11(8), 730-738.
85. Takenaka, S., Oldiges, H., Konig, H., Hochrainer, D., & Oberdorster, G. (1983). Carcinogenicity of cadmium chloride aerosols in W rats. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 70(2), 367-373.
86. Takiguchi, M., Achanzar, W. E., Qu, W., Li, G., & Waalkes, M. P. (2003). Effects of cadmiumon DNA-(Cytosine-5) methyltransferase activity and DNA methylation status during cadmium-induced cellular transformation. Exp Cell Res, 286(2), 355-365.
87. Verougstraete, V., Lison, D., & Hotz, P. (2003). Cadmium, lung and prostate cancer: A systematic review of recent epidemiological data. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews, 6(3), 227-255.
88. Waalkes, M. P. (2003). Cadmium carcinogenesis. Mutation Research, 533(1-2), 107-120.
89. Waalkes, M. P., & Diwan, B. A. (1999). Cadmium-induced inhibition of the growth and metastasis of human lung carcinoma xenografts: Role of apoptosis. Carcinogenesis, 20(1), 65-70.
90. Waalkes, M. P., Diwan, B. A., Weghorst, C. M., Ward, J. M., Rice, J. M., Cherian, M. G., & Goyer, R. A. (1993). Further evidence of the tumor-suppressive effects of cadmium in the B6C3F1 mouse liver and lung: Late stage vulnerability of tumors to cadmium and the role of metallothionein. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 266(3), 1656-1663.
91. Waisberg, M., Joseph, P., Hale, B., & Beyersmann, D. (2003). Molecular and cellular mechanisms of cadmium carcinogenesis. Toxicology, 192(2-3), 95-117.
92. Wang, H., Tan, W., Hao, B., Miao, X., Zhou, G., He, F., & Lin, D. (2003b). Substantial reduction in risk of lung adenocarcinoma associated with genetic polymorphism in CYP2A13, the most active cytochrome P450 for the metabolic activation of tobacco-specific carcinogen NNK. Cancer Research, 63(22), 8057-8061.
93. Wang, J., Deng, Y., Cheng, J., Ding, J., & Tokudome, S. (2003a). GST genetic polymorphisms and lung adenocarcinoma susceptibility in a Chinese population. Cancer Letters, 201(2), 185-193.
94. Wang, Y., Fang, J., Leonard, S. S., & Rao, K. M. (2004). Cadmium inhibits the electron transfer chain and induces reactive oxygen species. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 36(11), 1434-1443.
95. Wistuba, I. I., Gazdar, A. F., & Minna, J. D. (2001). Molecular genetics of small cell lung carcinoma. Seminars in Oncology, 28(2 Suppl 4), 3-13.
96. Yang, P., Bamlet, W. R., Ebbert, J. O., Taylor, W. R., & De Andrade, M. (2004). Glutathione pathway genes and lung cancer risk in young and old age populations. Carcinogenesis, 25(10), 1935-1944.
97. Yang, C. F., Shen, H. M., Shen, Y., Zhuang, Z. X., & Ong, C. N. (1997). Cadmium-induced oxidative cellular damage in human fetal lung fibroblasts (MRC-5cells). Environmental Health Perspectives, 105(7), 712-716.