Ethambutol dosage for the treatment of children: Literature review and recommendations

International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease

Volumn 10, Issue 12, 2006, Pages 1318-1330

  Donald, P R ^a   Maher, D ^b   Maritz, J S ^c   Qazi, S ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH   (South Africa)

^b WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

^c SOUTH AFRICAN MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Childhood; Dosage; Ethambutol; Toxicity; Tuberculosis

Indexed keywords

AMINOSALICYLIC ACID; CAPREOMYCIN; CYCLOSERINE; ETHAMBUTOL; ETHIONAMIDE; ISONIAZID; KANAMYCIN; PYRAZINAMIDE; RIFAMPICIN; STREPTOMYCIN; THIOACETAZONE; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT; VIOMYCIN;

AMBLYOPIA; BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY; BLURRED VISION; CHILD CARE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG EXCRETION; EXPERIMENTAL MODEL; EYE TOXICITY; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; OPTIC NEURITIS; PAPILLEDEMA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; SCREENING; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUBERCULOSIS; VISUAL DISORDER;

ADULT; ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS; CHILD; DOSAGE FORMS; ETHAMBUTOL; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; OPTIC NEURITIS; TUBERCULOSIS, PULMONARY;

EID: 33845583379     PISSN: 10273719     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Pfuetze K. Panel discussion: the future of ethambutol and capreomycin in the chemotherapy of tuberculosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 1098-1118.
2. Thomas J P, Baughn C O, Wilkinson R G, Shepherd R G. A new synthetic compound with antituberculous activity in mice: (dextro-2, 2'-(ethylenediimino)- di-1-butanol). Am Rev Respir Dis 1961; 83: 891-893.
3. Karlson A G. Therapeutic effect of (dextro-2, 2'-(ethylenediimino)-di-1- butanol) on experimental tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1961; 84: 902-904.
4. Carr R E, Henkind P. Ocular manifestations of ethambutol. Arch Opthalmol 1962; 67: 566-571.
5. World Health Organization. Stop TB Department. Treatment of TB: guidelines for national programmes. 3rd ed. WHO/CDS/TB/2003.313. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2003.
6. Trébucq A. Should ethambutol be recommended for routine treatment of tuberculosis in children? A review of the literature. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1997; 1: 12-15.
7. Graham S M, Daley H M, Banerjee A, Salaniponi F M, Harries A D. Ethambutol in tuberculosis: time to reconsider? Arch Dis Child 1998; 79: 274-278.
8. World Health Organization. WHO Model Formulary. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. http.//mednet3.who.int/EMLib/Model Formulary/modelFormulary.asp Accessed December 2005.
9. World Health Organization. Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development. Pocket book of hospital care for children. Guidelines for the management of common illnesses with limited resources. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2005.
10. Pilheu J. Ambulatory treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis with ethambutol-isoniazid. Chest 1970; 58: 497-500.
11. Bobrowitz ID, Gokulanathan K S. Ethambutol in the retreatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Dis Chest 1965; 48: 239-250.
12. Kass I. Chemotherapy regimens used in retreatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Part II. Observations on the efficacy of combinations of ethambutol, capreomycin and companion drugs, including 4-4 diisoammyloxythiosemicarbanalide. Tubercle 1965; 46: 166-177.
13. Place V A, Peets E A, Buyske D A. Metabolic and special studies of ethambutol in normal volunteers and tuberculous patients. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 775-795.
14. Corpe R F, Blalock F A. Multi-drug therapy including ethambutol in the retreatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 823-830.
15. Pyle M M. Ethambutol in the retreatment and primary treatment of tuberculosis: a four-year clinical investigation. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 835-845.
16. Donomae I, Yamamoto K. Clinical evaluation of ethambutol in pulmonary tuberculosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 849-881.
17. Leibold J E. The ocular toxicity of ethambutol and its relation to dose. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 904-909.
18. Ferebee S H, Doster B E, Murray F J. Ethambutol: a substitute for para-aminosalicylic acid in regimens for pulmonary tuberculosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 910-920.
19. Bobrowitz I D. Comparison of ethambutol-INH versus INH-PAS in the original treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 921-939.
20. Bobrowitz I D, Robins D E. Ethambutol-isoniazid versus PAS-isoniazid in original treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1967; 96: 428-438.
21. Tai F-H, Chen T-C. Studies on combined use of ethambutol and isoniazid in retreatment of drug-resistant cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. Chinese J Microbiol 1968; 1: 84-91.
22. Adel A. Opthalmological side-effects of ethambutol. Scand J Respir Dis 1969; 50 (Suppl): S55-S58.
23. Citron K M. Ethambutol: a review with special reference to ocular toxicity. Tubercle 1969; 50 (Suppl): S22-S36.
24. Horsfall PAL. Ethambutol in the retreatment of chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. Far East Med J 1969; 7: 213-218.
25. Radenbach K L. Results of clinical studies with capreomycin, ethambutol and rifampicin in the Heckeshorn Hospital, Berlin. Scand J Respir Dis 1969; 69 (Suppl): 43-53.
26. Wäre M, Heinivaara O, Elo R, Tala E. Clinical experience of the retreatment of drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis with rifampicin combined with ethambutol and capreomycin. Scand J Respir Dis 1969; 50 (Suppl): S59-S63.
27. Roussos T, Tsolkas A. The toxicity of myambutol on the human eye. Ann Opthalmol 1970; 2: 578-580.
28. Schütz I, Radenbach K L, Bartmann K. The combination of ethambutol, capreomycin and a third drug in chronic pulmonary tuberculosis with bacterial polyresistance. Antibiot Chemother 1970; 16: 43-58.
29. Tiburtius H. The undesired side-efects of myambutol. Antibiot Chemother 1970; 16: 298-301.
30. Lees A W, Allan G W, Smith J, Tyrrel W F, Fallon R J. Toxicity from rifampicin plus isoniazid and rifampicin plus ethambutol therapy. Tubercle 1971; 52: 182-190.
31. Acquinas M, Citron K M. Rifampicin, ethambutol and capreomycin in pulmonary tuberculosis previously treated with both first and second line drugs: the results of 2 years chemotherapy. Tubercle 1972; 53: 153-165.
32. British Medical Research Council. Co-operative controlled trial of a standard regimen of streptomycin, PAS and isoniazid and three alternative regimens of chemotherapy in Britain. Tubercle 1973; 54: 99-129.
33. Somner A R, Selkon J B, Walton M, White A B. Drug resistant pulmonary tuberculosis treated with ethambutol and rifampicin in north east England. Tubercle 1973; 54: 141-145.
34. Barron G J, Tepper L, Iovine G. Ocular toxicity from ethambutol. Am J Opthalmol 1974; 77: 256-260.
35. Hong Kong Tuberculosis Treatment Services, Brompton Hospital, British Medical Research Council. A controlled clinical trial of daily and intermittent regimens of rifampicin plus ethambutol in the retreatment of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle 1974; 55: 1-27.
36. British Thoracic and Tuberculosis Association. Short-course chemotherapy in pulmonary tuberculosis. Lancet 1975; 1: 119-124.
37. British Thoracic Association. A controlled trial of six months chemotherapy in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br J Dis Chest 1981; 75: 141-153.
38. Tuberculosis Research Centre, Madras. Ethambutol plus isoniazid for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis-a controlled trial of four regimens. Tubercle 1981; 61: 13-19.
39. Hong Kong Chest Service/British Medical Research Council. Controlled trial of four thrice-weekly regimens and a daily regimen all given for 6 months for pulmonary tuberculosis. Lancet 1981; 1: 171-174.
40. DePalma P, Franco F, Bragliani G, et al. The incidence of optic neuropathy in 84 patients treated with ethambutol. Metab Pediatr Syst Opthalmol 1989; 12: 80-82.
41. Tuberculosis Research Centre. A controlled clinical trial of oral short-course regimens in the treatment of sputum-positive pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1997; 1: 509-517.
42. Jindani A, Nunn A J, Enarson D A. Two 8-month regimens of chemotherapy for treatment of newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis: international multicentre randomized trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 1244-1251.
43. Griffith D E, Brown-Elliott B A, Shepherd S, McLarty J, Griffith L, Wallace R J. Ethambutol ocular toxicity in treatment regimens for Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Dis 2005; 172: 250-253.
44. Place V A, Thomas J P. Clinical pharmacology of ethambutol. Am Rev Respir Dis 1963; 87: 901-904.
45. Peets E A, Sweeney W M, Place V A, Buyske D A. The absorption, excretion, and metabolic fate of ethambutol in man. Am Rev Respir Dis 1965; 91: 51-58.
46. Gómez-Pimienta J L, Hernandez H S, Fernandez L F P, Herrera R P, Oranday O G. Retreatment of pulmonary tuberculosis with ethambutol. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 882-889.
47. Eule H, Werner E. Ethambutol-serumspiegel bei unterscheidlicher Dosierung; Vergleich von vier verscheidenen Bestimmungsmethoden Mit 4 Abbildungen. [Ethambutol levels in diverse dosage: comparison of different determination methods]. Z Erkr Atmungsorgane Folia Bronchol 1970; 133: 443-448. [In German]
48. Lee C S, Gambertoglio J G, Brater D C, Benet L Z. Kinetics of oral ethambutol in the normal subject. Clin Phamacother 1977; 22: 615-621.
49. Israili Z H, Rogers C M, El-Attar H. Pharmacokinetics of antituberculosis drugs in patients. J Clin Pharmacother 1987; 27: 78-83.
50. Kumar K. The penetration of drugs into the lesions of spinal tuberculosis. Int Orthopaed 1992; 16: 67-68.
51. Schall R, Müller F O, Duursema L, et al. Relative bioavailability of rifampicin, isoniazid and ethambutol from a combination tablet vs. concomitant administration of a capsule containing rifampicin and a tablet containing isoniazid and ethambutol. Arzneim-Forsch 1995; 11: 1236-1239.
52. Peloquin C A, Bulpitt A E, Jaresko G S, Jelliffe R W, Childs J M, Nix D E. Pharmacokinetics of ethambutol under fasting conditions with food and with antacids. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 568-572.
53. Zhu M, Burman W J, Starke J R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ethambutol in children and adults with tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004; 8: 1360-1367.
54. Hussels H, Otto H S. Ethambutol-Serumkonzentrationen im Kindersalter. Pneumonologie 1971; 145: 392-396.
55. Hussels H, Kroening U, Magdorf K. Ethambutol and rifampicin serum levels in children: second report on combined administration of ethambutol and rifampicin. Pneumologie 1973; 149: 31-38.
56. Benkert K, Blaha H, Petersen K F, Schmid P C. Tagesprofile und Profilverlaufskontrollen von Ethambutol bei Kindern [Plasma levels of ethambutol in children]. Med Klin 1974; 69: 1808-1813. [In German]
57. Graham S M, Bell D J, Nyirongo S, Hartkoorn R, Ward S A, Molyneux E M. Low levels of pyrazinamide and ethambutol in children with tuberculosis and impact of age, nutritional status and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 407-413.
58. Often H. EMB. In: Bartmann K, ed. Anti-tuberculosis drugs. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 1988: pp 197-204.
59. Suo J, Cheng C-E, Lin T P, Heifets L B. Minimal inhibitory concentrations of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol and streptomycin against M. tuberculosis strains isolated before treatment of patients in Taiwan. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138: 999-1001.
60. Dickinson J M, Aber V R, Mitchison D A. Bactericidal activity of streptomycin, isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol and pyrazinamide alone and in combination against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 116: 627-635.
61. Gangadharam P R, Pratt P F, Perumal V K, Iseman M D. The effects of exposure time, drug concentration, and temperature on the activity of ethambutol versus Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141: 1478-1482.
62. Dickinson J M, Mitchison D A. Bactericidal activity in vitro and in the guinea pig of isoniazid, rifampicin and ethambutol. Tubercle 1976; 57: 251-258.
63. Jenne J W, Beggs W H. Correlation of in vitro and in vivo kinetics with clinical use of isoniazid, ethambutol and rifampin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973; 107: 1013-1021.
64. Kuck N A, Peets E A, Forbes M. Modes of action of ethambutol on Mycobacterium tuberculosis, strain H37Rv. Am Rev Respir Dis 1963; 87: 905-906.
65. Hobby G I, Lenert T F. Observations on the action of rifampin and ethambutol alone and in combination with other antituberculosis drugs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 105: 292-295.
66. Pyle M M, Phuetze K H, Pearlman M D, de la Huerga J, Hubble R H. A four-year clinical investigation of ethambutol in initial and re-treatment cases of tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1966; 93: 428-441.
67. Gyselen A, Verbist L, Cosemans J, Laquet L M, Vandenbergh E. Rifampin and ethambutol in the retreatment of advanced pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1968; 98: 933-943.
68. Murray F J. US Public Health Service experience with ethambutol. Vienna, Austria: International Congress of Chemotherapy, 1967; 6: 339-382.
69. Doster B, Murray F J, Newman R, Woolpert S F. Ethambutol in the initial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973; 107: 177-190.
70. Mitchison D A. Drug resistance in mycobacteria. Br Med Bull 1984; 40: 84-90.
71. Mitchison D A. The action of anti-tuberculosis drugs in short-course chemotherapy. Tubercle 1985; 66: 219-225.
72. Hong Kong Chest Service/British Medical Research Council. Controlled trial of 6-month and 8-month regimens in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: the results up to 24 months. Tubercle 1979; 60: 201-210.
73. Hong Kong Chest Service/British Medical Research Council. Controlled trial of 4 three-times weekly regimens and a daily regimen all given for 6 months for pulmonary tuberculosis: the results up to 24 months. Tubercle 1982; 63: 89-98.
74. Jindani A, Aber V R, Edwards E A, Mitchison D A. The early bactericidal activity of drugs in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 121: 939-949.
75. Botha FJH, Sirgel F A, Parkin D P, van de Wal B W, Donald P R, Mitchison DA. Early bactericidal activity of ethambutol, pyrazinamide and the fixed dose combination of isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide (Rifater) in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. S Afr Med J 1996; 86: 155-158.
76. Kass I. Chemotherapy regimens used in retreatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Observations on the efficacy of combinations of kanamycin, ethionamide and either cycloserine or pyrazinamide. Tubercle 1965; 46: 151-165.
77. Yiannikas C, Walsh J C, McLeod J G. Visual evoked potentials in the detection of subclinical effects secondary to ethambutol. Arch Neurol 1983; 40: 645-648.
78. Polak C P, Leys M, van Lith GHM. Blue-yellow colour vision changes as early symptoms of ethambutol oculotoxicity. Opthalmologica 1985; 191: 223-226.
79. Joubert P H, Strobele J G, Ogle C W, van der Merwe C A. Subclinical impairment of colour vision in patients receiving ethambutol. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 21: 213-216.
80. Salmon J F, Carmichael T R, Welsh N H. Use of contrast sensitivity measurement in the detection of subclinical ethambutol toxic optic neuropathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1987; 71: 192-196.
81. Campbell I A, Elmes P C. Ethambutol and the eye; zinc and copper. Lancet 1975; 2: 711.
82. Ferguson E L, Gibson R S, Opare-Obishaw C, Ounpuu S, Thompson L U, Lahrfeld J. Zinc nutriture of preschool children living in two African countries. J Nutr 1993; 123: 1487-1496.
83. Roy M, Kumar L, Prasad R. Plasma zinc in Indian childhood tuberculosis: impact of anti-tuberculosis therapy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998; 2: 719-725.
84. Mankodi N A, Amdekar Y K, Desai A G, Patel D, Raichue G S. Ethambutol in unresponsive childhood tuberculosis. Indian Pediatr 1970; 7: 202-211.
85. Medical Research Council, Tuberculosis and Chest Diseases Unit. Management and outcome of chemotherapy for childhood tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child 1989; 64: 1004-1012.
86. Chavarria A G, Villarruel H R, Aguirre P T, Corvacho J C. Evaluacion clinica del etambutol en 36 niños tuberculosos estudados durante cuatro años. Neumol Cir Torax Méx 1970; 31: 39-47. [In Spanish]
87. Scheffler N K. Augenuntersuchungen bei der behandelung mit Ethambutol in zwei verscheidenen Dosierungen im Kindersalter. Pneumonologie 1971; 145: 396-400. [In German]
88. Nagy A, Fodor F, Avéd N, Chiriţǎ-Pall E, Szabo I. Studiu privind toxitatea ocularǎ a etambutolui. [Study of the toxicity of ehtambutol]. Rev Ig Bacteriol Virusol Parazitol Epidemiol Pneumoftiziol Pneumoftiziol 1980; 29: 163-166. [In Romanian]
89. Junnanond C, Chotibut S, Lawtiantong T. Safety evaluation of ethambutol in children. J Med Ass Thailand 1983; 66: 77-79.
90. Seth V, Khosla P K, Semwal O P, D'Monty V. Visual evoked responses in tuberculous children on ethambutol treatment. Indian Pediatr 1991; 28: 713-717.
91. Schmid P C. Ethambutol- und Rifampicin-verträglikeit und-dosierung im Kindesalter [Ethambutol and rifampicin-tolerance and dosages in childhood]. Pädiat Prax 1981; 25: 207-209. [In German]
92. Ramachandran P, Duraipandian M, Nagarajan M, Prabhakar R, Ramakrishnan C V, Tripathy S P. Three chemotherapy studies of tuberculous meningitis in children. Tubercle 1986; 67: 17-29.
93. Prachakvej P, Subharngkahen I. Visual loss from ethambutol. Siriraj Hosp Gaz 1979; 31: 908-912.
94. Chavarria A G, Villaruel H R, Aguirre P T, Lopez J P. El ethambutol asociado a isoniacida en el tratamiento de la tuberculosis en el nino. Rev Mexicana Pediatr 1967; 36: 194-200. [In Spanish]
95. Del Principe A, Caione C, Zamparelli F. Prime applicazioni dell'etambutolo nella terapia della tuberculosi infantile. Annali Dell'Istituto 'Carlo Forlanini' 1968; 28: 42-73. [In Italian]
96. Patwardhan P, Bhatia M, Merchant S M. Ethambutol in primary childhood tuberculosis. Indian Pediatr 1970; 7: 194-201.
97. Schmid P C. Discussion on myambutol (ethambutol). Antibiot Chemother 1970; 16: 305-315.
98. Simon K. Discussion on myambutol (ethambutol). Antibiot Chemother 1970; 16: 308-309.
99. Mérida de Léon J C. Tratamiento de la tuberculosis pulmonar con isoniacida y jarabe de myambutol en niños. Revisita del Collegio Medico de Guatemala 1971; 22: 48-55. [In Spanish]
100. Dingley H B, Sehgal K L. Treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in children-a controlled study. Indian Pediatr 1974; 11: 289-295.
101. Bhatia M P, Merchant S M. Comparative study of antitubercular drugs in the management of primary compex. Indian Pediatr 1975; 12: 1197-1203.
102. Gramer R E, Jeschke R, Krieglstein G K. Zur computer-geseuerten Gesichtsfeldkontrolle bei Kindern mit Ethambutol-Medikation. Klin Pädit 1982; 194: 52-55. [In German]
103. Mir E S, Canadell M G, Salinas F C, et al. Tratamiento de seis meses en tuberculosis pulmonar infantil. Revision de 11 casos. An Esp Pediatr 1990; 32: 303-306. [In Spanish]
104. Singh S B, Saraf S K, Singh L I, Srivastava T P. Osteoarticular tuberculosis in children. Indian Pediatr 1992; 29: 1133-1137.
105. Palme I B, Gudetta B, Bruchfeld J, Muhe L, Gieseke J. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection on clinical presentation, treatment outcome and survival in a cohort of Ethiopian children with tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002; 21: 1053-1061.
106. Peloquin C A. Serum concentrations of antimycobacterial drugs. Chest 1998; 113: 1154-1155.
107. Schmidt L H. Studies on the anti-tuberculosis activity of ethambutol in monkeys. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 135: 747-758.
108. Lee C S, Brater D C, Gambertoglio J G, Benet L Z. Disposition kinetics of ethambutol in man. J Pharmacokin Biopharm 1980; 8: 335-346.
109. Elliott A M, Berning S E, Iseman M D, Peloquin C A. Failure of drug penetration and the acquisition of drug resistance in chronic tuberculous empyema. Tubercle Lung Dis 1995; 76: 463-467.
110. 14C) in mice. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 689-690.
111. Liss R H, Letourneau R J, Schepis J P. Distribution of ethambutol in primate tissues and cells. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 529-532.
112. Tuli S M, Kumar K, Sen P C. Penetration of antitubercular drugs in clinical osteoarticular lesions. Acta Orthop Scand 1977; 48: 362-368.
113. Rylance G, Barnes N D, Craft A W, George A W, Milner A D. Drug response determinants. In: Drugs for children. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, 1987: 7-19.
114. McCarver G. Applicability of the principles of developmental pharmacology to the study of environmental toxicants. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 969-972.
115. Horne N W. Drugs used in chemotherapy. In: Modern drug treatment of tuberculosis. 7th ed. London, UK: Chest, Heart and Stroke Association, 1990.
116. Aït Khaled N, Anane T, Baghriche M, et al. Treatment of tuberculosis in children. In: Chaulet P, ed. Children in the tropics. Childhood tuberculosis, still with us. Paris, France: International Children's Centre, 1992: 196-197.
117. American Thoracic Society. Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 1359-1374.
118. Starke J R, Correa A G. Management of mycobacterial infection and disease in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 455-470.
119. Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society. Chemotherapy and management of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: recommendations 1998. Thorax 1998; 53: 536-548.
120. American Academy of Pediatrics. Tuberculosis. In: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 25th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL, USA: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2000.
121. Rieder H L. Interventions for tuberculosis control and elimination. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2002.
122. World Health Organization. Ethambutol efficacy and toxicity. Literature review and recommendation for daily and intermittent dosage in children. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2006.