Jesus is female: The Moravian challenge in the German communities of British North America

William and Mary Quarterly

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 295-332

  Fogleman, Aaron Spencer ^a  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33845516385     PISSN: 00435597     EISSN: 1933-769     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3491765     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. "Extract aus der species Facti wegen des Philadelphischen Tumults," Büdingische Sammlung Einiger in die Kirchen-Historie Einschlagender Sonderlich neurer Schrifften, 3 vols. (Büdingen, 1740-1742), 3:80-86. Unless otherwise noted all translations are my own
2. The Moravians had many problems with other German radical Pietist groups in Pennsylvania, especially in the early 1740s. Because these groups were smaller in number and the issues were somewhat different, they will not be a part of this study. For brief interpretations of these issues see John J. Stoudt, "Count Zinzendorf and the Pennsylvania Congregation of God in the Spirit: The First American Oecumenical Movement," Church History, 9 (1940), 366-80
3. Stoudt, "Pennsylvania and the Oecumenical Ideal," Bulletin of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States, 12 (1941), 171-97
4. and Peter Vogt, "Zinzendorf und die Pennsylvanischen Synoden 1742," Unitas Fratrum: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Gegenwartsfragen der Brüdergemeine, 36:1 (1994), 5-62
5. For religious violence involving Virginia Baptists, Methodists, and Shakers see Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 (Chapel Hill, 1982)
6. Cynthia Lynn Lyerly, Methodism and the Southern Mind, 1770-1810 (New York and Oxford, 1998), 146-75
7. Stephen J. Stein, The Shaker Experience in America: A History of the United Society of Believers (New Haven and London, 1992), 1-38
8. Nardi Reeder Campion, Ann the Word: The Life of Mother Ann Lee, Founder of the Shakers (Boston, 1976), 21-27, 103-55
9. and Erik R. Seeman, "'It Is Better to Marry Than to Burn': Anglo-American Attitudes toward Celibacy, 1600-1800," Journal of Family History, 24 (1999), 397-419
10. Charles Hartshorn Maxson, The Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies (Gloucester, Mass., 1958)
11. Dietmar Rothermund, The Layman's Progress: Religious and Political Experience in Colonial Pennsylvania, 1740-1770 (Philadelphia, 1961)
12. Martin E. Lodge, "The Crisis of the Churches in the Middle Colonies, 1720-1750," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 95 (1971), 195-220
13. John B. Frantz, "The Awakening of Religion among the German Settlers in the Middle Colonies," William and Mary Quarterly, 33 (1976), 266-88
14. Charles H. Glatfelter, Pastors and People: German Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the Pennsylvania Field, 1717-1793, 2 vols. (Breinigsville, Pa, 1981), 2:55-134
15. Patricia U. Bonomi, "'Watchful against the Sects': Religious Renewal in Pennsylvania's German Congregations, 1720-1750," Pennsylvania History, 50 (1983), 273-83
16. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (New York, 1986), 72-160
17. Sally Schwartz, "A Mixed Multitude": The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania (New York, 1987), 81-158
18. W. R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening (Cambridge, 1992), 116-59, 241-95
19. A. G. Roeber, Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993)
20. Thomas J. Müller, Kirche zwischen zwei Welten: Die Obrigkeitsproblematik bei Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg und die Kirchengründung der deutschen Lutheraner in Pennsylvania (Stuttgart, 1994)
21. Stephen L. Longenecker, Piety and Tolerance: Pennsylvania German Religion, 1700-1850 (Metuchen, N. J., 1994)
22. and Wolfgang Splitter, Pastors, People, Politics: German Lutherans in Pennsylvania, 1740-1790 (Trier, 1998)
23. "Communities" includes the isolated, closed settlements of groups like the Moravians and the Ephrata cloister in Pennsylvania, as well as urban congregations in Philadelphia and other cities and especially the Lutheran and Reformed congregations in the dispersed settlements south of New England. These congregations played an important role in the settlement and life of tens of thousands of German immigrants in the colonial era. See Aaron Spencer Fogleman, Hopeful Journeys: German Immigration, Settlement, and Political Culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996), 103-05, 111
24. Rothermund, Layman's Progress, 16-56
25. and Glatfelter, Pastors and People, 2:55-134, examined the "Moravian threat" in the Middle Colonies, but their work does not investigate the violence, the European background, or the cultural issues of gender, spirituality, and power that were at stake in the Moravian challenge
26. Fogleman, "Shadow Boxing in Georgia: The Beginnings of the Moravian-Lutheran Conflict in British North America," Georgia Historical Quarterly, 83 (1999), 629-59
27. and Fogleman, "Religious Conflict and Violence in German Communities."
28. Most Moravian historians have downplayed or ignored these issues of the so-called Sifting Period (Sichtungszeit). Many documents from this era were destroyed by archivists in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, in part because Moravian leadership was embarrassed by their contents and hoped to promote a better image of the church by writing new histories of the movement. See Paul Peucker, "'In Staub und Asche': Bewertung und Kassation im Unitätsarchiv, 1760-1810," in Rudolf Mohr, ed., "Alles ist euer, ihr aber seid Christi": Festschrift für Dietrich Meyer (Cologne, 2000), 127-58
29. Recently, younger Moravian historians have critiqued this view and are reinterpreting this era of their history. See Craig D. Atwood, "Zinzendorf's 1749 Reprimand to the Brüdergemeine," Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society, 29 (1996), 59-84
30. and Peucker, "'Blut auf unsre grünen Bändchen': Die Sichuntgszeit in der herrnhuter Brüdergemeine," Unitas Fratrum, 49/50 (2002), 41-94
31. See also Hans-Walter Erbe, Herrnhaag: Eine religiöse Kommunität im 18. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1988)
32. Die Herrnhaag-Kantate von 1739: Ihre Geschichte und ihr Komponist, Philipp Heinrich Molther (Hamburg, 1982)
33. and "Herrnhaag - Tiefpunkt oder Höhepunkt der Brüdergeschichte?" Unitas Fratrum, 26 (1989), 37-51
34. Zinzendorf, Sieben Letzten Reden, So Er In der Gemeine, Vor seiner am 7. Aug. erfolgen abermahligen Abreise nach Amerika, gehalten, 8-9 (June 11, 1741) (Büdingen, 1742)
35. See also Arthur J. Freeman's analysis of this concept in An Ecumenical Theology of the Heart: The Theology of Count Nicholas Ludwig von Zinzendorf (Bethlehem, Pa., 1998), 83-84, 168-69
36. and Otto Uttendörfer, Zinzendorf und die Mystik (Berlin, 1952), 338-44
37. On Spangenberg's defense of the father of Christ as the grandfather or father-in-law see M. AVG. Gottlieb Spangenbergs Apologetische Schluß-Schrifft, Worinn über tausend Beschuldigungen gegen die Brüder-Gemeinen und Ihren zeitherigen Ordinarium nach der Wahrheit beantwortet werden, 2 vols. (Leipzig and Görlitz, 1752), 232-33
38. An English translation is in William J. Hinke, ed., Life and Letters of the Rev. John Philip Boehm, Founder of the Reformed Church in Pennsylvania, 1683-1749 (Philadelphia, 1916), 348-65
39. and Gerardus Kulenkamp et al., Nadare Trouhartige Waarschouwinge, Tegen de Verleidingen Der Herrnhuters (Amsterdam, 1750), 16-30
40. See also Johann Georg Walch, Johann Georg Walchs ... Theologisches Bedencken von der beschaffenheit der Herrnhutischen Secte und wie sich ein landes-herr in ansehung zu verhalten habe (Frankfurt am Main, 1747), 55-56
41. See Zinzendorf, Pennsylvanische Nachrichten vom dem Reiche Christi (Büdingen, 1742), 1:33-55, esp. 38
42. A number of historians have analyzed the 18th-century Moravian view of the Holy Spirit as mother, the most important of whom are Atwood, "The Mother of God's People: The Adoration of the Holy Spirit in the Eighteenth-Century Brüdergemeine," Church History, 68 (1999), 886-909, esp. 892-95
43. Peter Zimmerling, Gott in Gemeinschaft: Zinzendorfs Trinitätslehre (Gießen-Basel, 1991)
44. and Gary Steven Kinkel, Our Dear Mother the Spirit: An Investigation of Count Zinzendorfs Theology and Praxis (Lanham, Md., 1990), 83-197, esp. 98-104
45. See also Freeman, Ecumenical Theology of the Heart, 88-90, 105-23
46. Jörn Reichel, Dichtungstheorie und Sprache bei Zinzendorf: der 12. Anhang zum Herrnhuter Gesangbuch (Bad Homburg, 1969), 29-64, esp. 61-63
47. and F. Ernest Stoeffler, Mysticism in the German Devotional Literature of Colonial Pennsylvania (Allentown, Pa, 1950), vol. 14 in the series of the Pennsylvania German Folklore Society, 67-90
48. For criticism of the Moravian view of the Holy Spirit as mother see Walch, Theologisches Bedencken, 44-60
49. and Siegmund Jacob Baumgarten, Theologisches Bedencken, 7 vols. (Halle, 1747-1748), 5:438, 6:771-72
50. Zinzendorf, Ergänzungsbände zu den Hauptschriften, "Naturelle Reflexiones über allerhand Materien, nach der Art, wie er bei sich selbst zu denken gewohnt ist" (1747), 62
51. Spangenberg, Apologetische Schluß-Schrifft, 187-89
52. Ruth Bloch, "Changing Conceptions of Sexuality and Romance in Eighteenth-Century America," WMQ, 3d Ser., 60 (2003), 13-42
53. Lyerly, Methodism and the Southern Mind, 146-75
54. Susan Juster, Disorderly Women: Sexual Politics and Evangelicalism in Revolutionary New England (Ithaca, 1994), 37, 62-68
55. Uttendörfer, Zinzendorf und die Mystik, 344-50
56. Hellmuth Erbe, Bethlehem, Pa.: Eine kommunistische Herrnhuter Kolonie des 18. Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1929), 95-104
57. Atwood, "Sleeping in the Arms of Christ: Sanctifying Sexuality in the Eighteenth-Century Moravian Church," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 8 (July 1997), 33-39
58. See also Gemein-Diarium 1747, in Hahn and Reichel, Zinzendorf und die Herrnhuter Brüder, 302, and Atwood's treatment of this issue in "Sleeping in the Arms of Christ," 28-39
59. The idea of a female soul inflamed the wildest imagination of opponents such as Heinrich Rimius, who concluded that to the Moravians male body parts must be detached at burial - see Rimius, A Candid Narrative of the Rise and Progress of the Herrnhuters ... (London, 1753; Philadelphia, 1753), 59-60
60. On this belief among mystics see Merry E. Wiesner, Christianity and Sexuality in the Early Modern World: Regulating Desire, Reforming Practice (London, 2000), 44
61. Zinzendorf, 1747, Hymn 2281, Christliches Gesang-Buch
62. see John M. Murrin, "'Things Fearful to Name': Bestiality in Early America," in William Pencak and George W. Boudreau, eds., "Explorations in Early American Culture," supplement to Pa. Hist., 65 (1998), 8-43
63. Hamburger, Nuns as Artists: The Visual Culture of a Medieval Convent (Berkeley, 1997), 175
64. David Morgan, Visual Piety: A History and Theory of Popular Religious Images (Berkeley, 1998), 97-123, has shown how the masculinity of Christ fluctuates over time in images and hymns, from a gentle, ethereal, and effeminate Savior to a rugged, violent man's man
65. David Freedberg, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response (Chicago, 1989)
66. For an overview on the Gnostic and Sophia traditions since early Christianity see Thomas Schipflinger, Sophia-Maria: A Holistic Vision of Creation (York Beach, Me., 1998)
67. See, for example, Verena Wodtke-Werner, ed., Auf den Spuren der Weisheit: Sophia, Wegweiserin für ein neues Gottesbild (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1991)
68. esp. Ruth Albrecht, "'Der einzige Weg zur Erkenntnis Gottes' - Die Sophia-Theologie Gottfried Arnolds und Jakob Böhmes," 102-17
69. and E. G. Alderfer, The Ephrata Commune: An Early American Counterculture (Pittsburgh, 1985), esp. 5-6, 14-26, 108, 112
70. Caroline Walker Bynum, Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (Berkeley, 1982), 110-69, esp. 161-62
71. Wiesner-Hanks, Christianity and Sexuality in the Early Modern World, 44, supports Bynum on this point
72. Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: Ecstatic Prophesy in Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley, 1992), esp. 114-15
73. and Schipflinger, Sophia-Maria
74. See also Gottfried Beyreuther, "Sexualtheorien im Pietismus" (Ph.D. diss., Munich, 1963), 15-29
75. Although the Moravians tried to have contact and some kind of communion with Ephrata, Conrad Beissel and others feared a Moravian Takeover and rejected them, in part because Beissel, who was a baker by trade and from humble origins, could not get along with the aristocratic Count Zinzendorf. See Alderfer, Ephrata Commune, esp. 77-85
76. Donald F. Durnbaugh, "Ephrata: An Overview," in Wolfgang Breul-Kunkel and Lothar Vogel, eds., Rezeption und Reform: Festschrift für Hans Schneider zu seinem 60. Geburtstag (Darmstadt, 2001), 251-65, esp. 255-56
77. and Stoeffler, Mysticism in the German Devotional Literature of Colonial Pennsylvania, 45-65
78. Bloch, "Changing Conceptions of Sexuality and Romance," 363-64
79. Campion, Ann the Word, 39-49
80. Stein, Shaker Experience in America, 1-38
81. Seeman, "Anglo-American Attitudes toward Celibacy"
82. Catherine A. Brekus, Strangers and Pilgrims: Female Preaching in America, 1740-1845 (Chapel Hill, 1998), 211-12
83. Rimius, Candid Narrative of the Rise and Progress of the Herrnhuters ..., 43-45
84. Volck, Das Entdeckte Geheimnis der Bosheit der Herrnhutischen Secte ... (Frankfurr, 1748-1749), 28-30, 43
85. Kulenkamp, De naakt ontdekte enthusiastery, geest-dryvery, en bedorvene mystikery der zo genaamde Herrnhuthers ... (Amsterdam, 1739-1740), 426-52, esp. 435-43
86. Willi Temme, Krise der Leiblichkeit: Die Sozietät der Mutter Eva (Buttlarsche Rotte) und der radikale Pietismus um 1700 (Göttingen, 1998)
87. Barbara Hoffmann, Radikalpietismus um 1700: Der Streit um das Recht auf eine neue Gesellschaft (Frankfurt am Main, 1996)
88. On the importance and use of polemical literature in this era see Martin Gierl, Pietismus und Aufklärung: Theologische Polemik und die Kommunikationsreform der Wissenschaft am Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1997)
89. Ward, Protestant Evangelical Awakening, 54-92
90. and Ulrike Witt, Bekehrung, Bildung und Biographie: Frauen im Umkreis des Hallischen Pietismus (Tübingen, 1996)
91. For overviews of radical Pietism in this era see Hans Schneider, "Der radikale Pietismus im 18. Jahrhundert," in Brecht, ed., Pietismus im achtzehnten Jahrhundert, 107-97
92. F. Ernest Stoeffler, German Pietism during the Eighteenth Century (Leiden, 1973), 168-216
93. and Johannes Wallmann, Der Pietismus (Göttingen, 1990), 80-108
94. For more detailed studies of the radical Pietist phenomenon see Hoffmann, Radikalpietismus um 1700
95. Temme, Krise der Leiblichkeit
96. and Chauncey David Ensign, "German Radical Pietism (c.1675-c.1760)" (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1955)
97. My views on these issues have been largely shaped by Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), esp. 1-50
98. Lynn Hunt, ed., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley, 1989)
99. Rebekka Habermas, "Geschlechtergeschichte und 'anthropology of gender': Geschichte einer Begegnung," Historische Anthropologie, 1 (1993), 485-509
100. Victoria E. Bonnell and Hunt, eds., Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley, 1999)
101. Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency and Experience from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (Durham, N. C., 1997)
102. and Heide Wunder, "Gender Norms and Their Enforcement in Early Modern Germany," in Abrams and Harvey, Gender Relations in German History, 39-56
103. Brekus, Strangers and Pilgrims, 23-76
104. Marilyn J. Westerkamp, Women and Religion in Early America, 1600-1850: The Puritan and Evangelical Traditions (London and New York, 1999), 75-103
105. Juster, Disorderly Women, 75-107
106. Mary Maples Dunn, "Latest Light on Women of Light," 71-85, in Elisabeth Potts Brown and Susan Mosher Stuard, eds., Witnesses for Change: Quaker Women over Three Centuries (New Brunswick and London, 1989)
107. Rebecca Larson, Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700-1775 (New York, 1999)
108. Jean R. Soderlund, "Women's Authority in Pennsylvania and New Jersey Quaker Meetings, 1680-1760," WMQ, 3d Ser., 44 (1987), 722-49
109. Witt, Bekehrung, Bildung und Biographie
110. Brecht, "Hallische Pietismus in der Mitte des 18. Jahrhundert"
111. Joachim Lange, Lebenslauf Zur Erweckung seiner in der Evangelischen Kirche Stehenden ... vor dem Herrenhutischen Kirchenwesen und Missionwercke (Halle, 1744), 346-58
112. See Otto Uttcndörfer, Zinzendorf und die Frauen: Kirchliche Frauenrechte vor 200 Jahren (Herrnhut, 1919), 27
113. and Dunn, "Latest Light on Women of Light," 71-85
114. Mack, Visionary Women, esp. 165-211
115. Larson, Daughters of Light
116. and Soderlund, "Women's Authority in Pennsylvania and New Jersey Quaker Meetings."
117. and Fogleman, "Moravian Immigration and Settlement in British North America, 1734-1775," Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society, 29 (1996), 23-58
118. For explanations of the various offices see Vernon Nelson, "Ordination in the Moravian Church in America, 1736-1790" (unpublished typescript, Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, 1996)
119. and Beverly Prior Smaby, "Female Piety Among Eighteenth Century Moravians," Pa. Hist., 64 (supplement, Summer 1997), 151-67
120. Hahn and Reichel, Zinzendorf und die Herrnhuter Brüder, 292-95, 454-61
121. and Vogr, " A Voice for Themselves: Women as Participants in Congregational Discourse in the Eighteenth-Century Moravian Movement," in Beverly Mayne Kienzle and Pamela J. Walker, eds., Women Preachers and Prophets through Two Millennia of Christianity (Berkeley, 1998), 227-47
122. Zinzendorf's commitment to women's preaching and empowerment was qualified. He accepted the Pauline principle of women's subordination to men in 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 (although he interpreted this passage creatively) and believed that if women ruled, confusion would follow. Women should play a special, honored role in the community, he believed, but Moravians should not go as far as the Quakers; Zinzendorf, "Redden vor Frauen-Personen gehalten in Philadelphia alle ab," R 14 A 38 1a 3, Unity Archives. For recent literature on the roles of Moravian women in their communities see Smaby, "Forming the Single Sisters' Choir in Bethlehem," Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society, 28 (1994), 1-14
123. Smaby, "Female Piety Among Eighteenth Century Moravians"; Katherine M. Faull, ed. and trans., Moravian Women's Memoirs: Their Related Lives, 1750-1820 (Syracuse, 1997)
124. and Vogt, "A Voice for Themselves."
125. See also Uttendörfer, Zinzendorf und die Frauen, 5-19, 36-66
126. Lange, Lebenslauf, Zur Erweckung, 346-58
127. Walch, Theologisches Bedencken, 107-10, 187-98
128. Ernst Salomon Cyprian, " Letztes Votum, die herrnhutische Secte betreffend," ibid., 3:11-12
129. For a good overview of the issues in the Reformation and debates among scholars about the reformers' views on marriage and sex see Joel F. Harrington, Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Germany (Cambridge and New York, 1995)
130. For the Puritans see Edmund S. Morgan, "The Puritans and Sex," New England Quarterly, 15 (1942), 591-607
131. Morgan, The Puritan Family: Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England (Boston, 1944)
132. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750 (New York, 1982), 106-25
133. Roger Thompson, Sex in Middlesex: Popular Mores in a Massachusetts County, 1649-1699 (Amherst, Mass., 1986), 190-200
134. and Edmund Leites, The Puritan Conscience and Modern Sexuality (New Haven and London, 1986), 1-21, 75-104
135. For German Pietist views see Fritz Tanner, Die Ehe im Pietismus (Zurich, 1952), 180-209
136. Beyreuther, Sexualtheorien im Pietismus, 66-69
137. For Mühlenberg's misogyny see Barbara Cunningham, "An Eighteenth-Century View of Femininity as Seen through the Journals of Henry Melchior Mühlenberg," Pa. Hist., 43 (1976), 197-212
138. Rita Bake and Birgit Kiupel, Unordentliche Begierden: Liebe, Sexualität und Ehe im 18. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1996) 73-155
139. Steven Ozment, Flesh and Spirit: Private Life in Early Modern Germany (New York, 1999), 3-52, 260-68
140. On class differences in the development of privacy see Norbert Elias, Über den Prozeß der Zivilization: Soziogenetische und psychogenetische Untersuchungen, 2 vols. (Frankfurt am Main, 1997), 1:219-63
141. Ulinka Rublack, Magd, Metz' oder Mörderin: Frauen vor frühneuzeitlichen Gerichten (Frankfurt am Main, 1998), 199-235
142. Wunder, Er ist die Sonn, sie ist der Mond, 152-72
143. Stefan Breit, "Leichtfertigkeit" und ländliche Gesellschaft: Voreheliche Sexualität in der frühen Neuzeit (Munich, 1991)
144. Rainer Beck, "Illegitimität und voreheliche Sexualität auf dem Land, Unterfinning, 1671-1770," in Richard van Dülmen, ed., Kultur der einfachen Leute: Bayerisches Volksleben vom 16. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1983), 112-50
145. Otto Ulbricht, Kindsmord und Aufklärung in Deutschland (Munich, 1990)
146. John E. Knodel, Demographic Behavior in the Past: A Study of Fourteen German Village Populations in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1988), 209-349
147. Smaby, The Transformation of Moravian Bethlehem: From Communal Mission to Family Economy (Philadelphia, 1988), 100-05
148. and Elisabeth W. Sommer, Serving Two Masters: Moravian Brethren in Germany and North Carolina, 1727-1801 (Lexington, Ky., 2000), 44-45, 69-78
149. Atwood, "Sleeping in the Arms of Christ," 39-44
150. For the sections Fresenius refused to print see Volck, Das Entdeckte Geheimnis der Bosheit der Herrnhutischen Secte ..., 28-56, 65-66, esp. 50-56
151. "Das durch und durch höchst ärgerliche Weiber-Lied." See Baumgarten, Theologisches Bedencken, 5:444
152. See Baumgarten, Theologisches Bedencken, 5:444-46, 764, 6:785
153. Harrington, Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Germany, 48-100
154. Isabel V. Hull, Sexuality, State, and Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815 (Ithaca, 1996), 9-52
155. Rublack, Magd, Metz' oder Mörderin, 199-235
156. Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London and New York), 1994
157. Roper, The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg (Oxford, 1989)
158. Smaby, Transformation of Moravian Bethlehem, 10-13
159. Sommer, Serving Two Masters, 29-31
160. Daniel B. Thorp, The Moravian Community in Colonial North Carolina: Pluralism on the Southern Frontier (Knoxville, 1989), 60-65
161. Seeman, "Sarah Prentice and the Immortalists: Sexuality, Piety, and the Body in Eighteenth-Century New England," in Merril D. Smith, ed., Sex and Sexuality in Early America (New York, 1998), 116-31
162. Seeman, "It Is Better to Matry than to Burn"
163. Richard Francis, Ann, the Word: The Story of Ann Lee, Female Messiah, Mother of the Shakers, the Woman Clothed with the Sun (London, 2000)