Ancient humped cattle in Africa: A view from the Chad Basin

African Archaeological Review

Volumn 23, Issue 3-4, 2006, Pages 55-84

  Magnavita, Carlos ^a  

^a GOETHE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Bos indicus; Clay figurines; Humped cattle; Osteomorphology; Zebu

Indexed keywords

EID: 33845371687     PISSN: 02630338     EISSN: 15729842     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10437-006-9008-z     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Adams, W. Y. (1964). An introductory classification of Meroitic pottery. Kush, XII, 126-173.
2. Adams, W. Y. (1977). Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3. Alberro, M., & Haile-Mariam, S. (1982). The indigenous cattle of Ethiopia. Part I. World Animal Review, 41, 2-34.
4. Anfray, F. (1967a). Les sculptures rupestres de Chabbè dans le Sidamo. Annales d'Ethiopie, VII, 19-32.
5. Anfray, F. (1967b). Matara. Annales d'Ethiopie, VII, 33-88.
6. Bard, K. A., Coltori, M., DiBlasi, M. C., Dramis, F., & Fattovich, R. (2000). The environmental history of Tigray (Northern Ethiopia) in the Middle and Late Holocene: A preliminary outline. African Archaeological Review, 17 (2), 65-86.
7. Bietak, M. (1979). Ceramics of the C-Group Culture. In F. Hintze (Ed.), Africa in Antiquity. The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan. Proceedings of the Symposium Held in Conjunction with the Exhibition, Brooklyn, September 29-October 1, 1978, Meroitica 5. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 107-127.
8. Blench, R. (1993). Ethnographic and linguistic evidence for the prehistory of African ruminant livestock, horses and ponies. In T. Shaw, P. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa. Food, metals and towns. London and New York: Routledge, pp. 71-103.
9. Blench, R. (1999). Traditional Livestock Breeds: Geographical Distribution and Dynamics in Relations to the Ecology of West Africa, Working Paper 122, Overseas Development Institute, London.
10. Bonnet, C. (2000). Edifices et rites funéraires à Kerma. Paris: Éditions Errance.
11. Bonnet, C., & Ferrero, N. (1996). Les figurines miniatures de Kerma (Soudan). Sahara, 8, 61-66.
12. Bourzat, D., & Souvenir, P. (1996). Boeuf Kouri. In I. de Zborowski (Ed.), Atlas d' élevage du Bassin du Lac Tchad (pp. 88-90). Paris: CTA.
13. Bradley, D. G., Loftus, R. T., Cunningham, P., & MacHugh, D. E. (1998). Genetics and domestic cattle origins. Evolutionary Anthopology, 6 (3), 79-86.
14. Bradley, D. G., MacHugh, D. E., Cunningham, P., & Loftus, R. T. (1996). Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 93 (10), 5131-5135.
15. Bradley, D. G., MacHugh, D. E., Loftus, R. T., Sow, R. S., Hoste, C. H., & Cunningham, E. P. (1994). Zebu-taurine variation in Y chromosomal DNA: A sensitive assay for genetic introgression in West African trypanotolerant cattle populations. Animal Genetics, 25, 7-12.
16. Brandt, S. A., & Carder, N. (1987). Pastoral rock art in the Horn of Africa: Making sense of udder chaos. World Archaeology, 19 (2), 194-213.
17. Braukämper, U. (1993). Umweltanpassung arabisch-sprechiger Rindernomaden (Shuwa) im nigerianischen Tschadsse-Gebiet. In U. Braukämper & M. Schlottner (Eds.), Frankfurter Ethnologische Forschungen in der Westafrikanischen Savanne. Berichte des Sonderforschungsbereichs 268, Bd. 3, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 53-60.
18. Braukämper, U. (1995). Probleme der Nutzung von Weidenressourcen bei der Shuwa-Arabern im nigerianischen Tschadbecken. In K. Brunk & U. Greinert-Byer (Eds.), Mensch und Natur in Westafrika. Eine interdisziplinäre Festschrift für Günther Nagel. Berichte des Sonderforschungsbereichs 268, Bd. 5, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 147-162.
19. Braukämper, U. (2004). Towards a chronology of Arabic settlements in the Chad Basin. In M. Krings & E. Platte (Eds.), Living with the lake: Perspectives on history, culture and economy of lake Chad. Studien zur Kulturkunde 121, Rüdiger Köppe, Köln, pp. 148-170.
20. Breunig, P. (1994). Early prehistoric art in Borno (N.E. Nigeria). Sahara, 6, 98-102.
21. Breunig, P. (2005). Groundwork of human occupation in the Chad Basin, Northeast Nigeria, 2000 B.C.-1000 A.D. In A. Ogundiran (Ed.), Precolonial Nigeria. Essays in Honour of Toyin Falola (pp. 105-131). Trenton: African World Press.
22. Breunig, P., et al. (in preparation). Catalogue of sites. In P. Breunig (Ed.), Archaeological Map of Northeast Nigeria.
23. Brewer, D. J., Redford, D. B., & Redford, S. (1994). Domestic plants and animals. The Egyptian origin. Warminster: Aris and Phillips Ltd.
24. Burstein, S. M. (2005). State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade. Paper presented at "Interactions: Regional Studies, Global Processes, and Historical Analysis," Library of Congress, Washington D.C., February 28-March 3, 2001 [http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/ burstein.html].
25. Chaix, L. (1982). Seconde note sur la faune de Kerma (Soudan). Campagnes 1981 et 1982. Genava, XXX, 67-70.
26. Chaix, L. (1988). Le monde animal à Kerma (Soudan). Sahara, 1, 77-84.
27. Chaix, L. (1994). Das Rind: Eine wichtige und allgegenwärtige Komponente der Kerma-Kultur (N Sudan, zwischen 3000-1500 v.Chr.). In M. Kokabi & J. Boessneck (Eds.), Beiträge zur Archäozoologie und Prähistorischen Anthropologie. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frähgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg, Band 53, Konrad Theiss, Stuttgart, pp. 163-167.
28. Chami, F. A. (1999). Roman beads from the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania: First incontrovertible archaeological link with the Periplus. Current Anthropology, 40 (2), 237-242.
29. Clutton-Brock, J. (1989). Cattle in ancient North Africa. In J. Clutton-Brock (Ed.), The walking larder. Patterns of domestication, pastoralism and predation (pp. 200-206). London: Unwin Hyman Ltd.
30. Coates, R., & Feldman, B. T. (1973). New cattle sculpture of Uganda. African Arts, 7 (1), 16-19.
31. Connah, G. (1981). Three Thousand Years in Africa. Man and his Environment in the Lake Chad Region of Nigeria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. David, N., Harvey, P., & Goudie, C. J. (1981). Excavations in the Southern Sudan. Azania, XVI, 7-54.
33. Denbow, J. R., & Wilmsen, E. N. (1986). Advent and course of pastoralism in the Kalahari. Science, 234 (4783), 1509-1515.
34. Edwards, C. J., MacHugh, D. E., Dobney, K. M., Martin, L., Russel, N., Horwitz, L. K., et al. (2004). Ancient DNA analysis of 101 cattle remains: Limits and prospects. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 695-710.
35. Epstein, H. (1971). The origin of the domestic animals of Africa, vol. I. New York: Africana.
36. Epstein, H., & Mason, I. L. (1984). Cattle. In I. L. Mason (Ed.), Evolution of domesticated animals (pp. 6-27). London and New York: Longman.
37. Fagan, B. M. (1967). Iron Age Cultures in Zambia (Kalomo and Kangila). London: Chatto and Windus.
38. Fattovich, R. (1977). Some data for the study of cultural history in ancient Northern Ethiopia. Nyame Akuma, 10, 6-18.
39. Fricke, W. (1979). Cattle Husbandry in Nigeria. A Study of its Ecological Conditions and Socio-Geographical Differentiations, Selbstverlag des Geographischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg.
40. Frisch, J. E., Drinkwater, R., Harrison, B., & Johnson, S. (1997). Classification of the southern African sanga and East African shorthorn zebu. Animal Genetics, 28, 77-83.
41. Fuller, D. Q. (2003). African crops in prehistoric South Asia: A critical review. In K. Neumann, A. Butler, & S. Kahlheber (Eds.), Food, fuel and fields. Progress in African archaeobotany (pp. 239-271). Africa Praehistorica 15, HBI, Köln.
42. Gates, G. M. (1952). Breeds of cattle found in Nigeria. Farm Forest, (Nigeria), 11, 19-43.
43. Gaussen, J., & Gaussen, M. (1988). Le Tilemsi prehistorique et ses abords. Sahara et Sahel malien. Cahiers du Quaternaire 11, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
44. Gautier, A. (1984). Archaeozoology of the Bir Kiseiba region, Eastern Sahara. In F. Wendorf & R. Schild (ass), A. Close (Ed.), Cattle-keepers of the Eastern Sahara: The Neolithic of Bir Kiseiba (pp. 49-72). Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press.
45. Gautier, A. (1987). Prehistoric men and cattle in North Africa: A dearth of data and a surfeit of models. In A. E. Close (Ed.), Prehistory of Arid North Africa. Essays in Honour of Fred Wendorf (pp. 163-187). Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press.
46. Gautier, A. (2002). The evidence for the earliest livestock in North Africa. In F. A. Hassan (Ed.), Droughts, Food and Culture. Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa's Later Prehistory (pp. 195-207). New York: Kluwer/Plenum.
47. Gifford-Gonzalez, D. (2005). Pastoralism and its consequences. In A. B. Stahl (Ed.), African Archaeology. A Critical Introduction. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
48. Graziosi, P. (1964). New discoveries of rock paintings in Ethiopia. Part II. Antiquity, 38, 187-194.
49. Griaule, M., & Lebeuf, J.-P. (1948-1950) Fouilles dans la région du Tchad (1). Journal de la Société des Africanistes, 18 (1-2), 1-116.
50. Grigson, C. (1980). The craniology and relationships of four species of Bos. V. Bos indicus L. Journal of Archaeological Science, 7, 3-32.
51. Grigson, C. (1991). An African origin for African cattle? Some archaeological evidence. The African Archaeological Review, 9, 119-144.
52. Grigson, C. (1996). Early cattle around the Indian Ocean. In J. E. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in Antiquity (pp. 41-74). London: Paul Kegan.
53. Grigson, C. (2000). Bos africanus (Brehm)? Notes on the archaeozoology of the native African cattle. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 38-60). London: UCL Press.
54. Gronenborn, D. (1996). Beyond Daima: Recent excavations in the Kala-Balge region of Borno State. Nigerian Heritage, 5, 34-46.
55. Gronenborn, D., & Magnavita, C. (2000). Imperial expansion, ethnic change, and ceramic traditions in the southern Chad Basin: A terminal nineteenth-century pottery assemblage from Dikwa, Nigeria. International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 4 (1), 35-70.
56. Gronenborn, D., van Neer, W., & Skorupinski, T. (1995). Kleiner Vorbericht zur archäologischen Feldarbeit südlich des Tschad-Sees. In K. Brunk & U. Greinert-Byer (Eds.), Mensch und Natur in Westafrika. Eine interdisziplinäre Festschrift für Günter Nagel, Berichte des Sonderforschungsbereichs 268, Band 5, Frankfurt, pp. 27-39.
57. Gutherz, X., Cross, J.-P., & Lesur, J. (2003). The discovery of new rock paintings in the Horn of Africa: The rockshelters of Las Geel, Republic of Somaliland. Journal of African Archaeology, 1 (2), 227-236.
58. Hanisch, E., & Maumela, V. (2002). Classification of the Schroda clay figurines. In J. A. van Schalkwyk & E. O. M. Hanisch (Eds.), Sculptured in Clay. Iron Age Figurines from Schroda, Limpopo Province, South Africa (pp. 47-67). Pretoria: National Cultural History Museum.
59. Hanotte, O., Tawah, C. L., Bradley, D. G., Okomo, M., Verjee, Y., Ochieng, J., et al. (2000). Geographic distribution and frequency of a taurine Bos taurus and an indicine Bos indicus Y specific allele amongst sub-Saharan African cattle breeds. Molecular Ecology, 9, 387-396.
60. Hanotte, O., Bradley, D. G., Ochieng, J. W., Verjee, Y., Hill, E. W., & Rege, E. O. (2002). African pastoralism: Genetic imprints of origins and migrations. Science, 296, 336-339.
61. Hoffmann, I., & Tomandl, H. (1987). Die Bedeutung des Tieres in der meroitischen Kultur vor dem Hintergrund der Fauna und ihrer Darstellung bis zum Ende der Napata-Zeit, Beiträge zur Sudanforschung, Beiheft 2, Universität Wien, Wien.
62. Holl, A. F. C. (2002). The Land of Houlouf. Genesis of a Chadic Polity, 1900 BC-AD 1800. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology.
63. Horton, M. C. (1996). Early maritime trade and settlement along the coasts of East Africa. In J. E. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in Antiquity (pp. 439-459), London: Paul Kegan.
64. Hrbek, I., & El Fasi, M. (1992). Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa. In I. Hrbek (Ed.), General History of Africa III (Abridged Edition). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century (pp. 31-49). London: James Currey.
65. Huffman, T. N. (1974). The Leopard's Kopje Tradition. Museum Memoir 6. Salisbury: National Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia.
66. Ibeagha-Awemu, E. M. (2004). Biochemical and molecular genetic characterization of cattle breeds of cameroon and nigeria. Giessen: Fachverlag Köhler.
67. Insoll, T. (2001-2002). The archaeology of post medieval Timbuktu. Sahara, 13, 7-22.
68. Kühn, R., Ludt, C., Manhart, H., Peters, J., Neumair, E., & Rottmann, O. (2005). Close genetic relationship of early Neolithic cattle from Ziegelberg (Freising, Germany) with modern breeds. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 122 (1), 36-49.
69. Lane, P. (2005). Nilotes, Eastern Africa: Origins, pastoralism, migration. In K. Shillington (Ed.), Encyclopedia of African History, vol. 3 (pp. 1125-1127). New York: Taylor and Francis Group.
70. Lange, D. (1987). A Sudanic Chronicle: The Borno Expeditions of Idris Alauma (1564-1576). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
71. Lebeuf, J.-P., Lebeuf, M.-D., Treinen-Claustre, F., & Courtin, J. (1980). Le Gisement Sao de Mdaga (Tchad). Fouilles 1960-1968. Paris: Societé D'Ethnographie.
72. Le Quellec, J.-L., & Abegaz, G. (2001). New sites of South Ethiopian rock engravings: Godana Kinjo, Ejersa Gara Hallo, Laga Harro, and remarks on the Sappe-Galma school. Annales d'Éthiopie, XVII, 203-222.
73. Levtzion, N., & Hopkins, J. F. P. (1981). Corpus of early arabic sources for West African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
74. Linseele, V. (in press). Domestic Livestock, Subsistence Strategies and Environmental Changes in Sahelian West Africa during the Past 4000 years: Evidence from Archaeofaunal Remains, BAR International Series.
75. Loftus, R. T., MacHugh, D. E., Bradley, D. G., Sharp, P. M., & Cunningham, P. (1994). Evidence for two independent domesticates of cattle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 91 (7), 2757-2761.
76. Loftus, R., & Cunningham, P. (2000). Molecular genetic analysis of African zeboid populations. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African Livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 251-258). London: UCL Press.
77. Loreille, O., Vigne, J.-D., Hardy, C., Callou, C., Treinen-Claustre, F., Dennebouy, N., et al. (1997). First distinction of sheep and goat archaeological bones by means of their fossil mtDNA. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 33-37.
78. Lortet, A., & Gaillard, C. (1903). La faune mommifiée de l'ancienne Egypte: Bovidés. Archives du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, Lyon, 8 (2), 41-71.
79. MacDonald, K. C. (1996). Tichitt-Walata and the Middle Niger: Evidence for cultural contact in the second millennium BC. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology Papers from the 10th Congress of the PanAfrican Association for Prehistory and Related Studies (pp. 429-440). Harare: University of Zimbabwe.
80. MacDonald, K. C. (2000). The origins of African livestock: Indigenous or imported? In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 2-17). London: UCL Press.
81. MacDonald, K. C., & MacDonald, R. H. (2000). The origins and development of domesticated animals in arid West Africa. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African Livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 127-162). London: UCL Press.
82. MacHugh, D. E., Schriver, M. D., Loftus, R. T., Cunningham, P., & Bradley, D. G. (1997). Microsatellite DNA variation and the evolution, domestication and phylogeography of taurine and zebu cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus). Genetics, 146, 1071-1086.
83. Maggs, T., & Michael, M. A. (1976). Ntshekane: An early Iron Age site in the Tugela Basin, Natal. Annals of the Natal Museum, 22 (3), 705-740.
84. Maggs, T., & Whitelaw, G. (1991). A review of recent archaeological research on food-producing communities in Southern Africa. Journal of African History, 32, 3-24.
85. Magnavita, C. (2003). Studien zur endsteinzeitlichen und früheisenzeitlichen Besiedlung im südwestlichen Tschadbecken (1300 BC-700 AD). Unpublished PhD Thesis at the University of Frankfurt am Main.
86. Marshall, F. (1989). Rethinking the role of Bos indicus in sub-Saharan Africa. Current Anthropology, 30 (2), 235-240.
87. Marshall, F. (2000). The origins and spread of domestic animals in East Africa. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 191-221). London: UCL Press.
88. Martin, A. (1996). Importance de d'élevage et sa place dans d'économie des pays de la Commission du Bassin de Lac Tchad. In I. de Zborowski (Ed.), Atlas d'élevage du Bassin du Lac Tchad (pp. 79-87). Paris: CTA.
89. Mason, I. L., & Maule, J. P. (1960). The indigenous livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Edinburgh: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.
90. Matenga, E. (1993). Archaeological Figurines from Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe: Uppsala University, Sweden/Queen Victoria Museum.
91. Mauny, R. (1978). Trans-Saharan contacts and the Iron Age in West Africa. In J. D. Fage (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 2 (pp. 272-341). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
92. Mbida, C. M., Van Neer, W., Doultrelepont, H., & Vrydaghs, L. (2000). Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest of Southern Cameroon. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27, 151-162.
93. McIntosh, S. K. (1995). Other ceramic and fired clay artifacts. In S. K. McIntosh (Ed.), Excavations at Jenné-Jeno, Hambartekolo, and Kaniana (Inland Niger Delta, Mali), the 1981 Season (pp. 214-245). Berkeley: University of California Press.
94. McIntosh, S. K., Gallagher, D., & McItosh, R. J. (2003). Tobacco pipes from excavations at the Museum Site, Jenne, Mali. Journal of African Archaeology, 1 (2), 171-199.
95. Meadow, R. H. (1984). Notes on the faunal remains from Mehrgarh, with a focus on cattle (Bos). In B. Allchin (Ed.), South Asia Archaeology 1981. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 34-40.
96. Meadow, R. H. (1993). Animal domestication in the Middle East: A revised view from the eastern margin. In G. Possehl (Ed.), Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective (pp. 295-320). New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies/Oxford and IBH Publishing.
97. Meghen, C., MacHugh, D., Sauveroche, B., Kana, G., & Bradley, D. (2000). Characterization of the Kuri cattle of Lake Chad using molecular genetic techniques. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African Livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 259-268). London: UCL Press.
98. Meyer, E. H. H. (1984). Chromosomal and biochemical markers of cattle breeds in southern Africa. Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress on Sheep and Beef Cattle Breeding, 2, 328-339.
99. Mindzie, C. M., Doultrelepont, H., Vrydaghs, L., Swennen, R. L., Swennen, R. L., Beeckman, H., et al. (2001). First archaeological evidence of banana cultivation in Central Africa during the third millennium before present. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 10, 1-6.
100. Mornet, P., & Kone, K. (1941). Le zébu peulh bororo. Bulletin des Services Zootechnique et les Épizootie de l'Afrique Occidentale Francaise, 4, 158-180.
101. Muzzolini, A. (1981). Essai de classification des peintures bovidiennes du Tassili. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique de L'Ariège, XXXVI, 93-113.
102. Muzzolini, A. (1983). Nouvelles peintures et gravures au Tassili du N.-O. Le quadrige "Grec" (decouvertes Kunz). Nyame Akuma, 22, 18-22.
103. Muzzolini, A. (2000). Livestock in Saharan rock art. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African Livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography. London: UCL Press, pp. 87-110.
104. Nachtigal, G. (1967 [1889]). Sahara und Sudan. Ergebnisse sechsjëhriger Reisen in Afrika. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt.
105. Nicolotti, M., & Guérin, C. (1992). Le zébu (Bos indicus) dans l'Egypte ancienne. Archaeozoologia, 5 (1), 87-108.
106. Njiman, I. J., Bradley, D. G., Hanotte, O., Otsen, M., & Lenstra, J. A. (1999). Satellite DNA polymorphisms and AFLP correlate with Bos indicus-taurus hybridization. Animal Genetics, 30, 265-273.
107. Paris, F. (1984). La region d'In Gall - Teggida n Tesemt (Niger). Pprogramme archeacute;ologique d'urgence, 1977-1981. Tome III: Les sépultures du nélitique final à l'Islam, Études Nigériennes 49, Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines, Niamey.
108. Paris, F. (1996). Les sépultures du Sahara nigérien du Néolitique à l'islamisation. Tome 1: Coutumes funéraires, chronologie, civilisations. Paris: Orstom.
109. Paris, F. (2000). African livestock remains from Saharan mortuary contexts. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African Livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 111-126). London: UCL Press.
110. Payne, W. J. A. (1964). The origin of domestic cattle in Africa. The Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 32, 97-113.
111. Payne, W. J. A., & Hodges, J. (1997). Tropical Cattle. Origins, Breeds and Breeding Policies. Cambridge: Blackwell Science.
112. Pearson, M. N. (2000). The Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. In N. Levtzion, & R. L. Powells (Eds.), The history of Islam in Africa (pp. 37-59). Athens: Ohio University Press.
113. Perkins, D. (1969). Fauna of Çatal Hüyük Evidence for early cattle domestication in Anatolia. Science, 164, 177-179.
114. Peters, J., Helmer, D., von den Driesch, A., & Saña Segui, M. (1999). Early animal husbandry in the Northern Levant. Paléorient, 25 (2), 27-47.
115. Plug, I. (1996). Domestic animals during the Early Iron Age in southern Africa. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African archaeology. Papers from the 10th Congress of the PanAfrican Association for Prehistory and Related Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, pp. 505-507.
116. Poisblaud, B. (2002). Une figurine de boviné dans le site d'Akirsa (Wolayta, Éthiopie). Annales d'Éthiopie, XVIII, 191-198.
117. Rege, J. E. O., Aboagye, G. S., & Tawah, C. L. (1994). Shorthorn cattle of West and Central Africa I. Origin, distribution, classification and population statistics. World Animal Review, 78, 2-13.
118. Ricci, L. (1959). Ritrovamenti archeologici in Eritrea. Rassegna di Studi Etiopici, XIV, 48-68.
119. Robinson, K. R. (1959). Khami Ruins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
120. Saitowitz, S. J., Reid, D. L., & van der Merwe, N. J. (1996). Glass bead trade from Islamic Egypt to South Africa c. AD 900-1250. South African Journal of Science, 92, 101-104.
121. Schoenbrun, D. L. (1993). Cattle herds and banana gardens: The historical geography of the western Great Lakes region, ca AD 800-1500. The African Archaeological Review, 11, 39-72.
122. Shaw, T. (1981). The Late Stone Age in West Africa and the beginnings of African food production. In C. Roubet, H. J. Hugot, & G. Souville (Eds.), Préhistoire Africain (pp. 213-235). Paris.
123. Shinnie, M. (1965). Ancient African Kingdoms. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.
124. Shinnie, P. L., & Bradley, R. J. (1980). The Capital of Kush 1. Meroe Excavations 1965-1972. Meroitica 4. Berlin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin/Akademie-Verlag.
125. Smith, A. B. (1974). Preliminary report of excavations at Karkarichinkat Nord and Karkarichinkat Sud, Tilemsi Valley, Republic of Mali, Spring, 1972. West African Journal of Archaeology, 4, 33-55.
126. Smith, A. B. (1980). Domesticated cattle in the Sahara and their introduction into West Africa. In M. A. J. Williams & H. Faure (Eds.), The Sahara and the Nile. Quaternary Environments and Prehistoric Occupation in Northern Africa (pp. 489-501). Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
127. Smith, A. B. (1984). Origins of the Neolithic in the Sahara. In J. D. Clark, & S. A. Brandt (Eds.), From hunters to farmers: The causes and consequences of food production in Africa (pp. 84-92). Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
128. Smith, A. B. (1992). Origins and spread of pastoralism in Africa. Annual Review of Anthropology, 21, 125-141.
129. Smith, A. B. (2000). The origins of the domestic animals of southern Africa. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 222-238). London: UCL Press.
130. Smith, A. B. (2005). African Herders: Emergence of pastoral traditions. Walnut Creek: Altamira Press.
131. Stranzinger, G., Elmiger, B., & Hetzel, D. J. S. (1987). Cytogenetic studies on different cattle breeds in Australia. Journal of Animal Breedingand Genetics, 104, 231-234.
132. Treinen-Claustre, F. (1982). Sahara et Sahel a l'Age du Fer. Borkou, Tchad, Societé des Africanistes, Paris.
133. Vernet, R. (1993). Préhistoire de la Mauritanie, Sépia, Nouakchott.
134. Vernet, R. (1996). Le site rupestre d'El Rhallaouiya (Adrar de Mauritanie). Beiträge für Allgemeine und Vergleichende Archäologie, 16, 109-137.
135. Vogel, J. (1976). Simbusenga. The Archaeology of the Intermediate Period of the Southern Zambian Iron Age. Zambia Museum Papers 4. London: National Museum of Zambia/Oxford University Press.
136. Vogel, J. (1971). Kumadzulo. An Early Iron Age Village Site in Southern Zambia. Zambia Museum Papers 3, National Museums of Zambia. London: Oxford University Press.
137. Voigt, E. (1983). Mapungubwe. An Archaeozoological Interpretation of an Iron Age Community. Transvaal Museum Monograph 1, Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.
138. Voigt, E. (1986). Iron Age herding: Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological approaches to pastoral problems. In M. Hall & A. B. Smith (Eds.), Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa. The South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 5 (pp. 13-21). Vlaeberg: The South African Archaeological Society.
139. Wood, M. (2000). Makind connections: Relationships between international trade and glass beads from the Shashe-Limpopo area. In M. Leslie & T. Maggs (Eds.), African Naissance: The Limpopo Valley 1000 Years Ago, The South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, vol. 8, pp. 78-90.
140. Zeuner, F. E. (1963). A History of domesticated animals. London: Hutchinson and Co.