Networks, narratives, and new markets: The rise and decline of Danish modern furniture design, 1930-1970

Business History Review

Volumn 80, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 449-483

  Hansen, Per H ^a  

^a Department of International Economics and Management   (Denmark)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33845302978     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0007680500035868     Document Type: Review

References (239)

1. Jean Baudrillard, "The Ideological Genesis of Needs," in The Consumer Society Reader, Douglas B. Holt and Juliet B. Schor, eds., The Consumer Society Reader (New York, 2000), 58-80, esp. 57, 70-71;
2. Baudrillard, The Consumer Society;
3. and Roland Barthes, The Fashion System (Berkeley, 1983; French ed., 1967), xi.
4. I am not arguing that the furniture, the producers, and the designers did not exist, but, rather, that the categories and the meanings attached to them were constructed by the narrative.
5. The exceptions are Carl Erik Andresen, Dansk Mebelindustri, 1870-1950 (Århus, 1996), whose analysis stops in 1950, exactly at the time of the international breakthrough of Danish Design.
6. Hans Chr. Johansen, Industriens vækst og vilkår, 1870-1973 (Odense, 1988), on the other hand, argues that Danish furniture's success was driven by the demand that grew out of increasing incomes and the opening of export markets (p. 299). Internationally, Michael Porter has pointed to design as a basis for Denmark's comparative advantage in the production of household products and furnishings. Porter attributes the country's edge to "a pool of university-trained designers" and "several professorships in furniture design."
7. See Michael Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (London, 1990), 78, 133.
8. The literature is abundant and mostly written by people who were part of the social network that I describe. See, for example, Arne Karlsen, Dansk Mebelkunst i det 20: århundrede: Bind 1-2 (Copenhagen, 1990);
9. Esbjørn Hiort, Arkitekten Finn Juhl: Møbelkunst, Arkitektur, Brugskunst (Copenhagen, 1990);
10. Grete Jalk, ed., Dansk Møbelkunst gennem 40 år: Københavns Snedkerlaugs Møbeludstillinger, 1927-1966, vols. 1-4 (Copenhagen, 1987);
11. Mirjam Gelfer-Jørgensen, Dansk Kunsthåndværk fra 1850 til vor tid (Copenhagen, 1982);
12. and Rigmor Andersen, Kaare Klints Møbler (Copenhagen, 1979).
13. Kevin Davies, "Markets, Marketing and Design: The Danish Furniture Industry, c. 1947-65," Scandinavian Journal of Design History 9 (1999): 56-73.
14. See also Kevin Davies, "Scandinavian Furniture in Britain: Finmar and the U.K. Market, 1949-1952," Journal of Design History 10 (2000): 39-52;
15. and "Twentieth Century Danish Furniture Design and the English Vernacular Tradition," Scandinavian Journal of Design History 7 (1997): 41-57;
16. Lesley Jackson, "A Positive Influence: The Impact of Scandinavian Design in Britain during the 1950S," Scandinavian Journal of Design History 4 (1994): 41-60.
17. Furthermore, Mette Dalby, "Smag, forbrug og livsstil: optikker på dansk møbeldesign, 1940-60" (M.A. thesis, Institut for Kunsthistorie, Århus Universitet, 2001) shows the value of a branding approach to Danish modern furniture.
18. Obviously the advent of Danish modern furniture came about for a variety of reasons. Harvey Molotch employs the concept of "latch up" to describe the many conditions that must be fulfilled in order for a new design to appear. See Harvey Molotch, Where Stuff Comes From (New York, 2003).
19. For an introduction to narrative and discursive analytical strategies, see Barbara Czarniawska, Narratives in Social Science Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2004);
20. David M. Boje, Narrative Methods for Organizational and Communication Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2001);
21. and Niels Åkerstram Andersen, Discursive Analytical Strategies: Understanding Foucault, Koselleck, Laclau and Luhman (Bristol, 2003).
22. Quotations are from Wally Olins, "How Brands are Taking over the Corporation," in The Expressive Organization: Linking Identity, Reputation, and the Corporate Brand, eds. Majken Schultz, Mary Jo Hatch, and Mogens Holten Larsen (Oxford, 2000).
23. See also James B. Twitchell, Branded Nation: The Marketing of Megachurch, College Inc., and Museumworld (New York, 2004). Was Danish Modern a brand? I will argue that it makes sense to use the concept in a broader perspective when assigning specific meanings to things in order to create or add value, even to a monarchy.
24. See John M. T. Balmer, Stephen A. Greyser, and Mats Urde, "Monarchies as Corporate Brands," Harvard Business School Working Paper no. 05-002 (Aug. 2004).
25. On brands and narratives, see Douglas B. Holt, How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural Branding (Cambridge, Mass., 2004).
26. Federal Trade Commission, "Advisory Opinion Digest No. 301," Federal Trade Commission Advisory Opinion Digest, vol. 1-313 (1 June 1962-31 Dec. 1968): 234;
27. and Ray O. Werner et al., "Legal Developments in Marketing," Journal of Marketing 33 (2) 1969:70-81.
28. For an influential account of how language and metaphors shape the way we think, see George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago, 1980).
29. Czarniawska, in Narratives in Social Science, argues convincingly that narratives cannot be controlled exclusively by the actors. However, in this case, the network was remarkably successful in doing so for a long period of time.
30. Regarding social networks, see Mark Granovetter, "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness," American Journal of Sociology 91, no. 3 (1985): 418-510.
31. See also Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (New York, 2005).
32. Grant McCracken, "Culture and Consumption: A Theoretical Account of the Structure and Movement of the Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods," Journal of Consumer Research 13, no. 1 (1986): 76. The concept of a "fashion system" was originally conceived by French semiologist Roland Barthes in 1967.
33. See Roland Barthes, The Fashion System (New York, 1983).
34. McCracken, Culture and Consumption, 77-78;
35. and Olins, "How Brands are Taking over the Corporation." This movement of meaning from designers and producers to consumers is not a one-way street, however.
36. Regina Lee Blaszczyk, in Imagining Consumers: Design and Innovation from Wedgwood to Corning (Baltimore, 2000), has argued that producers pay serious attention to consumers' preferences, which are conveyed through "fashion intermediaries," and therefore that designs are also influenced by a "bottom-up" process whereby meanings are transmitted by consumers to designers and producers.
37. There is a substantial literature on consumption, taste, and lifestyle. For different perspectives, see, for instance, Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York, 1994; 1st ed. 1899);
38. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (London, 1984);
39. and Judy Attfield, Wild Things: The Material Culture of Everyday Life (Oxford, 2000).
40. See also Tim Dant, Material Culture in the Social World: Values, Activities, Lifestyles (Buckingham, 1999);
41. and Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption. Concerning furniture and interior decoration,
42. see Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption II: Markets, Meaning and Brand Management (Bloomington, 2005), 17-47;
43. and, albeit for another period, Leora Auslander, Taste and Power: Furnishing Modern France (Berkeley, 1996).
44. See also Joy Parr, "Household Choices as Politics and Pleasure," International Labor and Working-Class History 55 (April 1999): 112-28;
45. Ruth Madigan and Moira Munro, "'House Beautiful': Style and Consumption in the Home," Sociology 30, no. 1 (1996): 41-58;
46. and Ian Woodward, "Divergent Narratives in the Imagining of the Home amongst Middle-Class Consumers: Aesthetics, Comfort and the Symbolic Boundaries of Self and Home," Journal of Sociology 39, no. 4 (2003): 391-412, who, from different perspectives and empirical bases, argue that consumers were torn between the desire for decoration and the desire for comfort.
47. For a discussion of Pierre Bourdieu's theory of distinction in relation to U.S. consumption, see Douglass B. Holt, "Does Cultural Capital Structure American Consumption?" in The Consumer Society Reader, eds. Schor and Holt.
48. For a discussion of taste in relation to furniture, see Stephen Bayley, Taste: The Secret Meaning of Things (New York, 1992).
49. This representation of Klint can be found in many places. For a more detailed discussion, see Hansen, Da danske møbler blev moderne: Historien om dansk møbeldesigns storhedstid (Copenhagen, 2006).
50. For an example in English, see Steen Eiler Rasmussen, "Furniture: Tools for Living," Danish Foreign Office Journal 8 (1953): 5-7,
51. and the somewhat more critical treatment by Davies in "Twentieth Century Danish."
52. Kaare Mint, "Undervisningen i nwbeltegning ved kunstakademiet," Arkitekten 13 (1930): 193-224.
53. See Hansen, Da danske møbler.
54. Concerning the invention of tradition, see, for instance, Povl Abrahamsen, Den danske enkelhed: Et samfund og dets arkitektur (Copenhagen, 1994), who devotes an entire book to demonstrating a unique and lengthy tradition of simplicity in Danish architecture and furniture design. The Arts of Denmark exhibitions in the United States in 1960 and 1961 are another good example.
55. See Erik Lassen, The Arts of Denmark, Viking to Modern: An Exhibition Organized by the Danish Society of Arts and Crafts and Industrial Design, United States of America, 1960-61 (Copenhagen, 1960).
56. Astrid Skjerven, "Goodwill for Scandinavian Design: The Lunning Prize, 1951-70" (unpublished Ph.D. diss., Oslo University, 2001) also discusses the invention of tradition in Danish furniture.
57. For the invention of traditions, see Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983).
58. Denmark: The Lonely Planet Guide (2005), 38.
59. See also Per H. Hansen and Klaus Petersen, Den store danske møbelguide (Copenhagen, 2005),
60. and, in particular, Hansen, Da danske møbler (2004).
61. Recent examples of the Klint subnarrative are Douglass Brenner, "The Other Danish Modern," New York Times, 3 Apr. 2005;
62. and M. Owens, "Kaare Klint," Elle Décor, Apr. 2005: 84-88.
63. Peter Hvidt, "Snedker og arkitekt," Berlingske Tidende, 17 Feb. 1959. (My translation.)
64. Elizabeth Gordon, "The Beauty that Comes with Common Sense," House Beautiful, July 1959: 55-122.
65. Marion Gough, "Hans J. Wegner-Poet of Practicality," House Beautiful, July 1959: 65-114.
66. Betty Pepis, "For the Home: Danish Craft Designs Stem from the Traditional," New York Times: 15 July 1950.
67. Lassen, The Arts of Denmark.
68. See Jalk, Dansk Møbelkunst;
69. Povl Christiansen, Fyrretyve år med snedkerlaugets møbeludstillinger (Copenhagen, 1986);
70. Viggo Sten Møller and Johannes Hansen, Vore dages møbler: Et håndværks vej i en maskintid (Copenhagen, 1955);
71. and Hansen, Da danske møbler.
72. Quoted from Hansen, Da danske møbler. (My translation.)
73. Povl Christiansen, Snedkerlaugets Møbeludstilling: Københavns Snedkerlaug 32. Udstilling. Exhibition catalog. (Copenhagen, 1958). (My translation.)
74. Christiansen, Snedkerlaugets Møbeludstilling.
75. For the concepts of narrating identity and positioning, see Barbara Czarniawska, "Identity Lost or Identity Found? Celebration and Lamentation over the Postmodern View of Identity in Social Science and Fiction, " in Schultz, Hatch, and Larsen, The Expressive Organization, 271-83.
76. "Danish Arts and Crafts. A Permanent Sales Exhibition," Danish Foreign Office Journal no. 3 (1951): 24-26.
77. Viggo Sten Møller, "Fashions in Furniture," Danish Foreign Office Journal (1960, special U.S. issue): 28-30.
78. Modern Danish Industrial Art: New York, 1939 (Copenhagen, 1939), 3-4.
79. Modern Danish Industrial Art: New York, 1939 Ibid., 5.
80. See McCracken, Culture and Consumption, 76-77;
81. and Hansen, Da danske møbler.
82. Leif Leer Sørensen, Edvard Heiberg og dansk funktionalisme-en arkitekt og hans samtid (Copenhagen, 2000).
83. See, for instance, David Raizman, The History of Modern Design (London 2003), 204.
84. Finn Juhl, "Danish Furniture Design," Architects' Year Book (1949): 134-40.
85. See Bard Henriksen, "Arne Jacobsen and His Laminated Chairs," Scandinavian Journal of Design History 7 (1997): 7-28;
86. Carsten Thau and Kjeld Vindum, Arne Jacobsen (Copenhagen, 2001);
87. Chr. Harlang, ed., Paul Kjærholm (Copenhagen, 1999);
88. and Hansen, Da danske møbler.
89. Modern Danish Industrial Art;
90. and Hansen, Da danske møbler.
91. For more information on Den Permanente, see Hansen, Da danske møbler;
92. Frederik Sieck, Dansk kunsthåndværk og kunstindustri, 1931-1981-belyst gennem glimt af Den Permanentes historie (Copenhagen, 1981);
93. and Esbjærn Hiort, Premio la Rinascente Compasso d'Oro-Den Permanente-Copenhagen (Milan, 1964).
94. Such statements, like these made by master cabinetmaker Jacob Kjær in 1932, were not unusual. See Jacob Kjær, "Magasinmøbler- magasinstil," Nyt Tidsskrift for Kunstindustri (1932): 119-20.
95. The concept of Danish design as democratic is also discussed in Davies, Twentieth-Century Danish Furniture Design.
96. See A. J. Pulos, The American Design Adventure, 1940-1975 (Cambridge, Mass., 1988);
97. and George Nelson, Chairs (New York, 1953).
98. See Hansen, Da danske møbler;
99. Bent Salicath, "The Lunning Prize Designers' Exhibition" (New York, 1957);
100. and Skjerven, Goodwill for Scandinavian Design.
101. This discussion mirrored the "trickle down" theory proposed by Veblen, in The Theory of the Leisure Class,
102. and by Georg Simmel, in "Fashion," International Quarterly (Oct. 1904;
103. reprinted in American Journal of Sociology [May 1957]: 541-58).
104. Cabinetmaker A. J. Iversen was firmly convinced of this theory. He believed that once the upper classes began to adopt modern furniture, the lower classes would follow suit. See Hansen, Da danske møobler.
105. Cf. Joseph Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle (Cambridge, Mass., 1934, English ed.), 66. This case does not fit well with Blaszczyk's claim, in Imagining Consumers, that producers relied on fashion intermediaries to learn about consumers' preferences.
106. Interestingly, in 1948, Nyt Tidsskrift for Kunstindustri [New Magazine for Industrial Arts]
107. changed its title to Dansk Kunsthåndvserk [Danish Arts and Crafts]. The change reflected the early Danish functionalists' initial admiration of the machine age, which subsequently shifted to a preference for arts and crafts.
108. Gudrun Egebjerg, Sådan skal du bo (Copenhagen, 1936);
109. Bo Bedre (Copenhagen, 1937);
110. and Esbjørn Hiort, Bo rigtigt (Copenhagen, 1947).
111. See also Jacob Kjør, Møbelbogen (Copenhagen, 1945).
112. The background of FDB-Møbler is discussed in more detail in Hansen, Da danske møbler,
113. and in Jørgen Guldberg, "Tradition, modernitet og usamtidighed: Om Børge Mogensens FDB-møbler og det modernes hjemliggørelse" (Working paper, University of Southern Denmark, Center for Cultural Studies, 1998).
114. Hansen, Da danske mobler;
115. and Birgit Kaiser, Den ideologiske funktionalisme (Copenhagen, 1992).
116. Kaiser, Den ideologiske funktionalisme and interview on 25 Feb. 2004 with cabinet-maker Holger Nissen, who took over Wrts's cabinetmaker's workshop in 1956.
117. Hansen, Da danske møbler;
118. Davies, Scandinavian Furniture in Britain;
119. and Davies, Markets, Marketing and Design. Davies concentrates on the U.K. market. Because of the United Kingdom's import restrictions, higher taxes, and lower income levels, exports to the United Kingdom were primarily of cheaper furniture.
120. See Pulos, The American Design Adventure;
121. G. H. Marcus, Design in the Fifties: When Everyone Went Modern (New York, 1998);
122. and Allen Tate and C. Ray Smith, Interior Design in the 20th Century (New York, 1986), 390-91, 433-34.
123. Holt, Does Cultural Capital? 222, 238-41;
124. Edward O. Laumann and James S. House, "Living Room Styles and Social Attributes: The Patterning of Material Artifacts in a Modern Urban Community," Sociology and Social Research no. 3 (1970): 321-42;
125. and Parr, Household Choices, on the negative correlation between modern furniture and a traditional way of life and low incomes.
126. See also the American designer Edward Wormley's explanation for Danish Modern's appeal to American consumers: Edward Wormley, "Hans J. Wegner i USA," Dansk Kunsthåndværk (1959): 45-46;
127. and Abbey Johnson, "Homemaker Finds Furniture Buying Threat to Her Ego," Chicago Daily Tribune, 14 Feb. 1960.
128. Hansen, Da danske møbler.
129. Edgar Kaufmann, "Finn Juhl of Copenhagen," Interiors (Nov. 1948): 96-99.
130. See also Olga Gueft, "Finn Juhl: About the Quiet Life of a Danish Architect," Interiors (Sept. 1950): 82-91.
131. "Juhl Furniture: Baker's Grand Rapids Galleries," Interiors (Nov. 1951): 84-93.
132. D.A., "Danish Furniture: Old Hands Give Shape to New Ideas," Interiors (Feb. 1950): 86-91.
133. Interiors (March 1950).
134. See also Møller and Hansen, Vore dages møbler;
135. Johan Møller Nielsen, Wegner-en dansk møbelkunstner (Copenhagen 1965);
136. and Denmark: The Lonely Planet Guide, 38.
137. See also Svend Erik Møller, "Den første eksport til USA," in Svend Erik Møller, ed., På Wegners tid (Herning, 1989);
138. and Flemming Kilander, "DanskMobeleksport," in Møller, ed., På Wegners tid.
139. Hansen, Da danske møbler.
140. The marketing of Danish furniture by persons with links to Denmark was also the case in the U.K. See Jackson, Positive Influence,
141. and Davies, Scandinavian Furniture in Britain.
142. See also Møller and Hansen, Vore dages møbler.
143. The quotation is from The Lunning Collection (catalog, n.d., probably 1957).
144. See also The Danish Craftsmen Series published by John Stuart Inc. (catalog, n.d.);
145. and The George Tanier Selection (catalogs: New York, 1956, 1960).
146. J. Anderson, "Designs for Living," Playboy, July 1961: 50, 52, 108-9, 110.
147. A good example is Elizabeth Gordon, "The Threat to the Next America," House Beautiful: Apr. 1953: 126-30, 250-51.
148. "For the Home: New Designs Shown in Denmark," New York Times, 2 Oct. 1954.
149. See also Gough, Hans J. Wegner-Poet, 68, on Hans Wegner's furniture.
150. See, for instance, Edgar Kaufmann Jr., "Hans Wegner: The Heresies of a Quiet Dane," Industrial Design, Mar. 1959: 56-59.
151. Kate Keating, A Young American Looks at Denmark (New York, 1963), 28, 36, 50.
152. For the shopping guides, see, for instance, Temple Fielding, Temple Fielding's Selective Shopping Guide to Europe (New York, 1961), and her glowing recommendation of Den Permanente and Illums Bolighus for furniture and design.
153. S. Johnsen & Co., Sightseeing Copenhagen and Sealand (brochure) (Copenhagen, 1956).
154. H. S. Commager, "Big Lessons from a Small Nation," New York Times Magazine, 2 Oct. 1960.
155. "Famous for Food, Fun and Fairy Tales," New York Times, 23 Feb. 1964.
156. Sarah Tomerlin Lee, "Scandinavia," House Beautiful, Jan. 1968: 73.
157. Edgar Kaufmann Jr., "An American View of the Arts of Denmark and Danish Modern Design," in Lassen, The Arts of Denmark, 99-106.
158. See Hansen, Da danske wbler.
159. For traditional accounts of how the exhibition was organized, see Arne Remlov, Design in Scandinavia: An Exhibition of Objects for the Home from Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden (Oslo, 1954);
160. and Aake Huldt, Design in Scandinavia: USA-Canada, 1954-1957 (Stockholm, 1958).
161. Leslie Cheeks Jr. wrote about Scandinavian design and American taste in "Do Americans Have Good Taste?" New York Times, 6 June 1954.
162. Betty Pepis, "Glass and Silver give Tone to Show," New York Times, 16 Jan. 1954.
163. For a systematic account of the press coverage of the exhibition tour, see Huldt, Design in Scandinavia.
164. See also Remlov, Design in Scandinavia;
165. and Hansen, Da danske møbler.
166. For an analysis of this, see Ingeborg Glambek, Sett utenfra: Det nordiske i arkitektur og design (Vojens, 1997).
167. Edgar Kaufmann Jr., "Scandinavian Design in the USA," Interiors (May 1954): 108-85.
168. Marion Gough, "How to visit Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden during the Scandinavian Design Cavalcade," House Beautiful, July 1959: 46-110.
169. Danish Design, catalog prepared by Magasin du Nord (Copenhagen, 1960).
170. Danish Design, catalog prepared by Crome & Goldschmidt Department Store (Copenhagen 1960);
171. and Illums Bolighus: Center for Modern Design, catalog prepared by Illums Bolighus (Copenhagen, 1961).
172. J . Katzen, "Prestige-The Intangible Asset," Retailing Daily, 28 Apr. 1952.
173. E. Bartels, "Danske møbler til USA," Mobilia (Feb. 1956): 21-28.
174. The examples are numerous, but see, for instance, Elizabeth Gordon, "The New Taste Trend," House Beautiful, Oct. 1952: 174-75;
175. Elizabeth Gordon, "The Editor's Forecast of the New Taste Cycle," House Beautiful, Oct. 1952:182-83,269-72;
176. M. Roche, "The Growing Love of Soft, Rounded Flowing Forms," House Beautiful, Oct. 1952:184-87, 248-49;
177. L. van Houten, "Furniture," Arts & Architecture, Aug. 1954:25-29;
178. and George Tanier Selection (catalog).
179. Van Houten, Furniture.
180. See also Betty Pepis, "The People's Choice," New York Times, 2 Jan. 1955.
181. This correspondence can be found in the Danish Business Archive, Aarhus, archive of "Thorald Madsens Snedkeri (1550)," box "1929-79, Diverse korrespondance vedr. ordrer og tilbud."
182. For possession rituals, see McCracken, Culture and Consumption.
183. According to Madigan and Munro, in "House Beautiful," the claim to craftsmanship is a general characteristic of the furniture industry, even when the claim is not substantiated by the actual production process. Nonetheless, the Danish network was successful in identifying craftsmanship as a special characteristic of Danish furniture.
184. Laumann and House, Living Room Styles.
185. See also McCracken, Culture and Consumption II, 17-47.
186. Parr, Household Choices.
187. See the map at the end of Møller and Hansen, Vore dages møbler.
188. Judson Jerome, "Go East, Young Man," Chicago Review 18 (1965): 78-86.
189. Betty Jo Ramsey, "What Perfume Tells About You," Los Angeles Times, 13 Nov. 1960.
190. Monica Bonn also makes this claim in her book on Swedish modern furniture, cf. Monica Boman, ed., Svenska Möbler, 1890-1990 (Stockholm, 2004), 235.
191. On the United Kingdom, see Jackson, A Positive Influence, 48.
192. Pepis, Glass and Silver. During the 1950s and the first half of the 19605, a number of books and catalogs helped to construct Danish Modern as a brand.
193. See, for instance, Contemporary Danish Design (Copenhagen, 1960);
194. Esbjørn Hiort, Modern Danish Furniture (New York, 1956);
195. Ulf Hård af Segerstad, Modern Scandinavian Furniture (London, 1963);
196. Arne Karlsen and Anker Tiedemann, Made in Denmark: A Picture Book about Modern Danish Arts and Crafts (New York, 1960);
197. A. Karlsen, B. Salicath, and M. Utzon-Frank, Contemporary Danish Design (Copenhagen, 1960);
198. Lassen, The Arts of Denmark;
199. Svend Erik Møller, Brugskunst i stuen [Danish Design in the Living Room] (Copenhagen, 1956);
200. and Remlov, Design in Scandinavia.
201. Hansen, Da danske møbler.
202. Regarding the shift from a modern to a postmodern consumer culture, see Douglas B. Holt, "Why Do Brands Cause Trouble? A Dialectical Theory of Consumer Culture and Branding," Journal of Consumer Research 29, no. 1 (2002): 70-90.
203. Douglas B. Holt, "Why Do Brands Cause Trouble? A Dialectical Theory of Consumer Culture and Branding," Journal of Consumer Research 29, no. 1 (2002): 70-90. Ibid.
204. Hansen, Da danske møbler.
205. Edgar Kaufmann Jr., "Two Decades of Interiors: Design: The Guiding Stars, 1940 and 1960," Interiors (Nov. 1960): 177-79.
206. See also Hansen, Da danske møbler;
207. and Lassen, The Arts of Denmark.
208. Rita Reif, "A Show at the Met on What's Out of Fashion," New York Times, 2 Mar. 1978.
209. Ada Louise Huxtable, "The Melancholy Fate of Danish Modern Style," New York Times, 21 Aug. 1980.
210. Bodil Wrede Nielsen, "Behind the scenes of Danish Design," Interiors (Oct. 1960): 30.
211. See also Svend Erik Møller, "The Danes at Home," Danish Foreign Office Journal (special U.S. issue, 1960): 18-20.
212. Skjerven, Goodwill for Scandinavian Design.
213. Regarding Finn Juhl's furniture, see Hansen, Da danske møbler .
214. The invitation is in the Danish Business Archive, archive of "Thorald Madsens Snedkeri," box "1912-72: Diverse sager."
215. "En haandsnedker bruger da maskiner," Politiken, 20 Feb. 1955.
216. See Holt, "Why Do Brands Cause Trouble?";
217. Hansen, Da danske møbler;
218. and Hanne Horsfeld, "Innovations-Fusions-Provocations: Verner Panton's Seating, 1955-1970," Scandinavian Journal of Design History 8 (1998): 44-79.
219. Karl Weick, "Sensemaking in Organizations: Small Structures with Large Consequences," in Karl Weick, Making Sense of the Organization, 2nd ed. (Malden, Mass., 2001; first ed., 1993), 3-31.
220. Horsfeld, Innovations-Fusions;
221. Harlang, Paul Kjærholm;
222. and Hansen, Da Danske Møbler.
223. Jack Lenor Larsen, "Furniture, Italian and International," Interiors (Nov. 1957): 112-16.
224. Per Arnoldi and Torben Schmidt, "De beslutningsdygtige. Samtale med Jens Bang," Mobilia (July 1970).
225. Blaszczyk, in Imagining Consumers, argues that producers took notice of consumer preferences.
226. The case of Danish Modern seems to indicate, however, that this was a complicated dialectic that led to the lock-in of design "type forms." See Molotch, Where Stuff Comes From, for the concept of "type form" and a discussion of consumers' resistance to changes in design.
227. See also Madigan and Munro, "House Beautiful."
228. Hansen, Da danske møbler.
229. Most of this section is from Hansen, Da danske møbler.
230. Hansen, Da danske møbler, 560.
231. Jens Lenler, "Designoprør: Dansk håndværk trues," Politiken, 31 Aug. 2004.
232. See, for instance, Douglas B. Holt and Juliet B. Schor, "Do Americans Consume Too Much?" in Douglas B. Holt and Juliet B. Schor, eds., The Consumer Society Reader (New York, 2000), vii-xxiii;
233. George Ritzer, "Introduction," in Jean Baudrillard, The Consumer Society. Myths & Structures (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1998; French ed., 1970), 1-23.
234. See also James B. Twitchell, Branded Nation: The Marketing of Megachurch, College Inc., and Museumworld (New York, 2004);
235. Holt, How Brands Become Icons;
236. and McCracken, Culture and Consumption II.
237. For some further discussion, see Barbara Czarniawska, Narratives in Social Science Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2004);
238. David M. Boje, Narrative Methods for Organizational and Communication Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2001);
239. and Niels Åkerstrøm Andersen, Discursive Analytical Strategies: Understanding Foucault, Koselleck, Laclau and Luhman (Bristol, 2003).