Interstate water pollution problems and elusive federal water pollution policy in the United States, 1900-1948

Environment and History

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 435-465

  Paavola, Jouni ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Interstate compacts; New Deal; United States; Water pollution

Indexed keywords

POLLUTION CONTROL; POLLUTION POLICY; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33845219435     PISSN: 09673407     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3197/096734006779093659     Document Type: Article

References (299)

1. On environmental values, activism and policies, see Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987);
2. Ronald Inglehart, 'Public Support for Environmental Protection: The Impact of Objective Problems and Subjective Values in 43 Societies', Political Science and Politics 28 (1995): 57-71;
3. Robert Cameron Mitchell, 'From Conservation to Environmental Organizations: The Development of the Modern Environmental Lobbies', in Government and Environmental Politics: Essays on Historical Developments since World War Two, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1989), 81-113.
4. See Richard N. L. Andrews, Managing the Environment, Managing Ourselves: A History of American Environmental Policy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999);
5. Hugh S. Gorman, Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns, Regulatory Mechanisms, and Technological Change in the US Petroleum Industry (Akron, OH: University of Akron Press, 2001);
6. Terence Kehoe, Cleaning Up the Great Lakes: From Cooperation to Confrontation (DeKalb: Northern University Press, 1997);
7. Philip V. Scarpino, Great River: An Environmental History of the Upper Mississippi, 1890-1950 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985);
8. Joel A. Tarr, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, OH: The University of Akron Press, 1996);
9. Craig E. Colten, 'Illinois River Pollution Control, 1900-1970', in The American Environment: Interpretations of Past Geographies, eds. Lary M. Dilsaver and Craig E. Colten (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1992), 193-214;
10. Richard W. Judd, 'The Coming of the Clean Water Acts in Maine,' Environmental History Review 14 (1990): 51-73;
11. Harold L. Platt, 'Chicago, the Great Lakes, and the Origins of Federal Urban Policy', Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 1 (2002): 122-53;
12. James Joseph Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control: Development of State and National Policy' (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1956), 51-72.
13. On institutions and their analysis, see e.g. Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990);
14. Douglass C. North, Understanding the Process of Economic Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005);
15. Elinor Ostrom, Understanding Institutional Diversity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
16. See also Arild Vatn, Institutions and the Environment (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2005);
17. Jouni Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property: Industrial Water Pollution and Common Law in the Nineteenth Century United States', Environment and History 8 (2002): 295-318.
18. Jouni Paavola and W. Neil Adger, 'Institutional Ecological Economics', Ecological Economics 53 (2005): 353-68.
19. See John T. Cumbler, 'Whatever Happened to Industrial Waste: Reform, Compromise, and Science in Nineteenth Century Southern New England', Journal of Social History (Fall 1995): 149-71;
20. Stuart Galishoff, 'Triumph and Failure: The American Response to the Urban Water Supply Problem, 1860-1923', in Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930, ed. Martin V. Melosi (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1980) 35-57;
21. Jouni Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property: Industrial Water Pollution and Common Law in the Nineteenth Century United States', Environment and History 8 (2002): 295-318;
22. Jouni Paavola, 'Law - Water and Air Pollution', In The Encyclopedia of World Environmental History, Vol. II., eds. Shepard Krech III, J. R. McNeill and Carolyn Merchant, (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), 778-86;
23. Joel A. Tarr, 'Sewerage and the Development of the Networked City in the United States, 1850-1930', in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, eds. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988), 159-85;
24. Joel A. Tarr, 'Searching for a Sink for an Industrial Waste: Iron-Making Fuels and the Environment', Environmental History Review 18 (1994);
25. Joel A. Tarr, James McCurley, and Terry F. Yosie. 'The Development and Impact of Urban Wastewater Technology: Changing Concepts of Water Quality Control, 1850-1930,' in Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930, ed. Martin V. Melosi (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1980), 59-82.
26. On legal institutions for the protection of public health, see John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 1866-1966 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1974);
27. William J. Novak, The People's Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996);
28. Charles Rosen, A History of Public Health, exp. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993);
29. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962);
30. Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health And The State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972);
31. On litigation over industrial water pollution, see Jouni Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property'.
32. See Andrews, Managing the Environment, Managing Ourselves, 201-5;
33. Gorman, Redefining Efficiency;
34. Kehoe, Cleaning Up the Great Lakes;
35. Scarpino, Great River.
36. See e.g. Lewis v. Stein, 16 Ala, 214, 50 Am. Rep. 177 (1849);
37. Wheatley v. Chrisman, 24 Pa. St. 298, 64 Am. Dec. 657 (1855, 658);
38. Snow v. Parsons, 28 Vt. 459, 67 Am. Dec. 723 (1856);
39. Hayes v. Waldron, 44 N.H. 580, 84 Am. Dec. 105 (1863);
40. McCallum v. Germantown Water Co., 54 Pa. 40, 93 Am. Dec. 656 (1867);
41. New Boston Coal and Mining Co. v. Pottsville Water Co., 54 Penn. 164 (1867);
42. Jacobs v. Allard, 42 Vt. 303, 1 Am. Rep. 331 (1869);
43. Richmond Manufacturing v. Atlantic DeLaine, 10 R.I. 106, 14 Am. Rep. 658 (1871)
44. Hazeltine v. Case, 46 Wis. 391, 1 N.W. 66 (1879);
45. Canfield v. Andrews, 54 Vt. 1, 41 Am. Rep. 828 (1882);
46. Red River Roller Mills v. Wright, 30 Minn. 249, 44 Am. Rep. 194 (1883);
47. Lockwood Co. v. Lawrence, 77 Me. 297, 52 Am. Rep. 763 (1885);
48. Woodruff v. North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Co., 16 F. 25 (1883, 30);
49. Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Sanderson and Wife, 113 Pa. 126, 6 A. 453 (1886, 459);
50. Robb v. Carnegie Bros. & Co. Limited, 145 Pa. St. 338, 22 A. 649 (1891);
51. Columbus & H. Coal & Iron Co. Tucker, 48 Ohio St. 41, 26 N.E. 630 (1891, 632);
52. Beach v. Sterling Iron & Zinc Co., 54 N.J. Eq. 65, 33 A. 286 (1895);
53. Strobel et. al. v. Kerr Salt Co., 164 N.Y. 303, 58 N.E. 142 (1900, 145).
54. See also Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 205-39;
55. Cumbler, 'Whatever Happened to Industrial Waste';
56. Andrew Hurley, 'Creating Ecological Wastelands: Oil Pollution in New York City, 1870-1900', Journal of Urban History 20 (1994): 340-64;
57. Martin V. Melosi, 'Hazardous Waste and Environmental Liability: An Historical Perspective', Houston Law Review 25 (1988): 741-79;
58. Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property';
59. Joel A. Tarr, 'Searching for a Sink.'
60. See Peter N. Davis, 'Theories of Water Pollution Litigation', Wisconsin Law Review (1971): 738-816;
61. Melosi, 'Hazardous Waste and Environmental Liability';
62. Paavola, 'Law - Water and Air Pollution', pp. 778-86;
63. Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property'.
64. On industrial effluents and health, see American Water Works Association, 'Report of Industrial Wastes in Relation to Water Supply', Journal of American Water Works Association 10 (1923): 415-30;
65. American Water Works Association, 'Progress Report on Agencies for the Control of Pollution by Industrial Wastes', Journal of American Water Works Association 11 (1924): 628-48.
66. For a court action against an industrial polluter during a cholera epidemic, see e.g. McCallum v. Germantown Water Co., 54 Pa. 40, 93 Am. Dec. 656 (1867).
67. On litigation in cholera years, see Mills v. Hall, 9 Wendell 315 (N.Y.), 24 Am. Dec. 160 (1832, 162);
68. State v. Buckman, 8 N.H. 203 (1836);
69. Lewis v. Stein, 16 Ala, 214, 50 Am. Rep. 177 (1849, 180);
70. Metropolitan Board of Health v. Heister, 37 N.Y. 661 (1868, 667);
71. City of Salem v. Eastern RR. Co., 98 Mass. 431 (1868, 443);
72. McCallum v. Germantown Water Co., 54 Pa. 40, 93 Am. Dec. 656 (1867, 664-5);
73. New Boston Coal and Mining Co. v. Pottsville Water Co., 54 Penn. 164 (1867);
74. Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 U.S. 659 (1878).
75. On urbanisation and mortality, see Robert William Fogel, The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700-2100 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
76. On theories of disease, see Rosen, A History of Public Health;
77. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years.
78. On urban growth and sewage pollution in general, see Galishoff, 'Triumph and Failure';
79. Joel A. Tarr, James McCurley, III, Francis C. McMichael, and Terry F. Yosie. 'Water and Wastes: A Retrospective Assessment of Wastewater Technology in the U.S., 1800-1932', Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 226-63.
80. On the mid-19th century epidemiological studies and sanitary surveys, see Rosen, A History of Public Health.
81. On sewage litigation, see Chapman v. City of Rochester, 110 N.Y. 273, 18 N.E. 88 (1888);
82. Topeka Water Supply Co. v. City of Potwin Place, 43 Kan. 404, 23 P. 578 (1889);
83. Newark Aqueduct Board v. City of Passaic, 45 N.J. Eq. 393, 18 A. 106 (1889);
84. Middlesex Co. v. City of Lowell, 149 Mass. 509, 21 N.E. 872 (1889, 873);
85. City of Jacksonville v. Doan, 145 Ill. 23, 33 N.E. 878 (1893, 880);
86. Good v. City of Altoona, 162 Pa. 493, 29 A 741 (1894);
87. Village of Dwight v. Hayes, 150 Ill. 273 37 N.E. 218 (1894);
88. Blizzard v. Borough of Danville, 175 Pa. 479, 34 A. 846 (1896);
89. Morgan v. City of Danbury, 67 Conn. 484, 35 A. 499 (1896);
90. Nolan v. City of New Britain, 69 Conn. 668, 38 A. 703 (1897);
91. Owens v. City of Lancaster, 182 Pa. 257, 37 A. 858 (1897);
92. City of Richmond v. Test, 18 Ind. App. 482, 48 N.E. 610 (1897);
93. Peterson v. City of Santa Rosa, 119 Cal. 387, 51 P. 557 (1897);
94. City of Valparaiso v. Hagen, 153 Ind. 337, 74 Am. St. Rep. 305, 54 N.E. 1062 (1899, 1064);
95. Attorney General v. City of Paterson, 58 N.J. Eq. 1, 42 A. 749 (1899);
96. Rhodes v. City of Durham, 81 S.E. 938 (1914).
97. Cities in the Passaic River Valley frequented the courts in the 19th century. See, for example, Newark Aqueduct Board v. City of Passaic, 45 N.J. Eq. 393, 18 A. 106 (1889);
98. State v. Bergen County, 18 A. 465 (1889);
99. Attorney General v. City of Paterson, 58 N.J. Eq. 1, 42 A. 749 (1899);
100. Attorney General v. City of Paterson, 60 N.J. Eq. 305, 45 A. 995 (1900);
101. City of Paterson v. City of Summit, 56 A. 125 (1903).
102. On water pollution in Passaic valley and New Jersey, see Stuart Galishoff, Newark: The Nation's Unhealthiest City, 1832-1895 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1975);
103. Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health: Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988).
104. See also Stuart Galishoff, 'Triumph and Failure: The American Response to the Urban Water Supply Problem, 1860-1923', in Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930, ed. Martin V. Melosi (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980), 35-57.
105. On local and state public health promotion, see Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City;
106. Novak, The People's Welfare;
107. Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State.
108. Paavola, 'Law - Water and Air Pollution'.
109. See also Joel A. Tarr, Terry Yosie, and James McCurley, 'Disputes over Water Quality Policy: Professional Cultures in Conflict, 1900-1917', American Journal of Public Health 70 (1980): 427-35;
110. Jouni Paavola, 'Governing Water Quality for Public Health in the 19th and Early 20th Century United States: From Private Property to Public Good and Back', Technology and Culture, forthcoming.
111. For litigation over sewage pollution, see Davis, 'Theories of Water Pollution Litigation'
112. Paavola, 'Law, Water and Air Pollution
113. See Paul Hansen, 'The Control of Stream Pollution', The American City 10 (1914): 69.
114. On Chicago's typhoid epidemics, see George C. Whipple, Typhoid Fever: Its Causation, Transmission and Prevention (New York, 1908), 391-2.
115. On conflicts over Chicago's sewage disposal solutions and associated diversion of water from the Lake Michigan, see Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U.S. 208 (1901),
116. U.S. 496 (1906);
117. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 278 U.S. 367 (1928);
118. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 281 U.S. 179 (1929);
119. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 289 U.S. 395 (1933).
120. See also Louis P. Cain, Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1978);
121. Colten, 'Illinois River Pollution Control';
122. Platt, 'Chicago, the Great Lakes, and the Origins of Federal Urban Policy'.
123. On conflicts over the pollution of interstate waters between New York and New Jersey, see New York v. New Jersey, 256 U.S. 296 (1921);
124. New Jersey v. City of New York, 283 U.S. 473 (1931),
125. U.S. 712 (1932),
126. U.S. 237 (1933).
127. On the pollution of the New York Bay, see Hurley, 'Creating Ecological Wastelands'.
128. Many Great Lakes cities experienced severe typhoid epidemics in the early twentieth century because of sewage pollution. Thus, one of the first tasks of the International Joint Commission (IJC), which was established in 1909 by the Boundary Waters Treaty, was to study pollution of boundary waters. The report of IJC concluded that, apart from their shore waters and mouths of the rivers that flow into them, the Great Lakes are "in a state of almost absolute purity". However, with 'the exception of these pure areas, the entire stretch of boundary waters ... is polluted to an extent which renders the water in its unpurified state unfit for drinking purposes'. The IJC observed that 'shore waters, besides being in places unsightly, malodorous and absolutely unfit for domestic purposes, are a source of serious danger to summer residents, bathers, and others who frequent the localities' and continued that '[s]o foul are they in many places that municipal ordinances have been passed prohibiting bathing in them'. The IJC considered that the untreated sewage of major cities and vessels was the main reason for water pollution but that forest and food industries were also grossly polluting the boundary waters in places. See International Joint Commission, Final Report of the International Joint Commission on the Pollution of Boundary Waters (Washington, DC: GPO, 1918), 51.
129. On IJC, see Kehoe, Cleaning Up the Great Lakes, 20-22.
130. On the dominance of industrial water pollution after the Second World War, see Earl Finbar Murphy, Water Purity: A Study in Legal Control of Natural Resources (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), 89.
131. Reasons for industrial relocation were complex. Improving transport networks and technologies made it feasible for producers to locate further away from the markets of their final products. The northern industrial facilities were also already aged in the early twentieth century and it was possible to reconsider location when new investments were made at the end of their economic life span. Relocating made it also possible to tap into new sources of raw materials, which was especially important for the forest industry. Finally, the south had abundant inexpensive and unorganised labour. On industrial relocation, see Nancy K. Ohanian, The American Pulp and Paper Industry, 1900-1940: Mill Survival, Firm Structure, and Industry Relocation (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1993);
132. Nancy Frances Kane, Textiles in Transition: Technology, Wages, and Industry Relocation in the U.S. Textile Industry, 1880-1930 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1988);
133. John S. Hekman, 'The Product Cycle and New England Textiles', Quarterly Journal of Economics 94 (1980): 697-717;
134. James A. Morris, 'Cotton and Wool Textiles - Case Studies in Industrial Migration', Journal of Industrial Economics 2 (1953): 65-83.
135. Robert J. Newman, 'Industry Migration and Growth in the South', Review of Economics and Statistics 65 (1983): 76-86.
136. Gavin Wright, 'Cheap Labor and Southern Textiles, 1880-1930', Quarterly Journal of Economics 96 (1981): 605-29.
137. See 'We Believe in Clean Streams, But - Say the Polluters Who Are Opposing the Lonergan Legislation', Outdoor America (New Series Vol. 1, June 1936), 7.
138. For the assessment of state public health work, see Charles V. Chapin, A Report on State Public Health Work (Chicago: 1916), 175-82, 196-7.
139. For reviews of early statutory water pollution control legislation, see Edwin B. Goodell, A Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution of Inland Waters in the United States, 2nd ed. (Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Water and Irrigation Paper 152, 1905);
140. Leroy Parker and Robert H. Worthington, The Law of Public Health and Safety, and the Powers and Duties of Boards of Health (Albany: Mathew Bender, 1892);
141. Stanley D. Montgomery and Earle B. Phelps, Stream Pollution: A Digest of Judicial Decisions and A Compilation of Legislation Relating to the Subject (Washington; US Public Health Service, Public Health Bulletin 87, 1918).
142. In 1939, Harold L. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior, was the chairman of the National Resources Committee. Other members included Harry H. Woodring, Secretary of War; H. A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture; Harry L. Hopkins, Secretary of Commerce; Frances S. Perkins, Secretary of Labor; and F. C. Harrington, Works Progress Administrator. Advisory committee members were Frederic A. Delano, Charles E. Merriam, Henry S. Dennison, and Beardsley Ruml. See National Resources Committee, Water Pollution in the United States: Third Report of the Special Advisory Committee on Water Pollution (Washington: Government Printing Service, 1939), ii.
143. See also Patrick D. Reagan, Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890-1943 (Amhurst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000);
144. Frederic S. Lee, 'From Multi-Industry Planning to Keynesian Planning: Gardiner Means, the American Keynesians, and National Economic Planning at the National Resources Committee,' Journal of Policy History 2 (1990).
145. See the Natural Resources Committee, Water Pollution in the United States, xi-xii.
146. See also Reagan, Designing a New America.
147. See National Resources Committee, Report on Water Pollution by the Special Advisory Committee on Water Pollution (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1935), 12-20;
148. National Resources Committee, Third Report, 68-72.
149. National Resources Committee, Report on Water Pollution, 15-16.
150. See also Goodell, A Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution.
151. See Report on Water Pollution, 16.
152. See also Goodell, A Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution.
153. See Report on Water Pollution, 16-17.
154. See also Goodell, A Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution.
155. See Report on Water Pollution, 16-17.
156. See also Goodell, A Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution.
157. See Report on Water Pollution, 18-19.
158. On shared responsibility for water pollution control in Wisconsin, see Murphy, Water Purity, 84-91.
159. See Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property'.
160. See also Louise A. Halper, 'Nuisance, Courts, and Markets in the New York Court of Appeals, 1850-1915', Albany Law Review 54 (1990): 301-57;
161. Christine Rosen, 'Differing Perceptions of the Value of Pollution Abatement across Time and Place: Balancing Doctrine in Pollution Nuisance Law, 1840-1906', Law and History Review 11 (1993): 303-81.
162. See Paavola, 'Water Quality as Property'.
163. For the capital subsidy thesis, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1780-1860 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).
164. For cases where courts were hesitant to find municipal polluters liable, see e.g. Child v. City of Boston, 4 Allen 41, 81 Am. Dec. 680 (1862);
165. Merrifield v. City of Worcester, 110 Mass. 216, 14 Am. Rep. 592 (1872, 597);
166. City of Richmond v. Test, 18 Ind. App. 482, 48 N.E. 610 (1897);
167. City of Valparaiso v. Hagen, 153 Ind. 337, 74 Am. St. Rep. 305, 54 N.E. 1062 (1899, 1064).
168. For cases where municipal polluters are found liable, see e.g. Chapman v. City of Rochester, 110 N.Y. 273, 18 N.E. 88 (1888);
169. City of Jacksonville v. Doan, 145 Ill. 23, 33 N.E. 878 (1893, 880);
170. Village of Dwight v. Hayes, 150 Ill. 273 37 N.E. 218 (1894);
171. Good v. City of Altoona, 162 Pa. 493, 29 A 741 (1894);
172. Blizzard v. Borough of Danville, 175 Pa. 479, 34 A. 846 (1896);
173. Morgan v. City of Danbury, 67 Conn. 484, 35 A. 499 (1896);
174. Peterson v. City of Santa Rosa, 119 Cal. 387, 51 P. 557 (1897);
175. Owens v. City of Lancaster, 182 Pa. 257, 37 A. 858 (1897);
176. Nolan v. City of New Britain, 69 Conn. 668, 38 A. 703 (1897);
177. Attorney General v. City of Paterson, 58 N.J. Eq. 1, 42 A. 749 (1899);
178. Rhodes v. City of Durham, 81 S.E. 938 (1914);.
179. For negligence litigation on the delivery of contaminated water, see e.g. Buckingham v. Plymouth Water Co., 142 Pa. 221, 21 A. 824 (1891, 824);
180. Green v. Ashland Water Co., 101 Wis. 258, 77 N.W. 722 (1898);
181. Hayes v. Torrington Water Co., 88 Conn. 609, 92 A. 406 (1914, 407);
182. Jones v. Mt. Holly Water Co., 87 N.J. Law 106, 93 A. 860 (1915);
183. Stubbs v. City of Rochester, 226 N.Y. 516, 124 N.E. 137 (1919).
184. See George C. Whipple, 'Clean Water as a Municipal Asset', The American City 4 (1911): 161-5;
185. George W. Fuller, 'Is it Practicable to Discontinue the Emptying of Sewage into Streams?', The American City 7 (1912): 43-5;
186. George G. Whipple, 'Standards of Purity for Rivers and Waterways', The American City 7 (1912): 559-61;
187. H. Burdett Cleveland, 'The Economics of Sewage Disposal', The American City 23 (1923): 235-6.
188. On mortality reductions, see George C. Whipple, Typhoid Fever;
189. See also Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State;
190. Paavola, 'Governing Water Quality for Public Health'.
191. See George C. Whipple, 'Clean Water as a Municipal Asset', 161-5.
192. For the early 20th century court cases where water pollution control statutes were involved, see State Board of Health v. Jersey City, 55 N.J. Eq. 116, 35 A. 835 (1896);
193. Stone v. Heath, 179 Mass. 385, 60 N.E. 975 (1901);
194. State v. Diamond Mills Paper Co., 63 N.J. 111, 51 A. 1019 (1902);
195. Sprague v. Dorr, 69 N.E. 344 (1904);
196. City of Durham v. Eno Cotton Mills, 141 N.C. 615, 54 S.E. 453 (1906, 461);
197. State Board of Health v. Borough of Vineland, 72 N.J. Eq. 862, 68 A. 110 (1907);
198. Board of Health of the State of New Jersey v. Ihnken, 72 N.J. Eq. 865, 67 A. 28 (1907);
199. Commonwealth v. Emmers, 70 A. 762 (Pa., 1908);
200. Miles City v. Montana State Board of Health, 39 Mont. 405, 102 P. 696 (1909);
201. State v. Morse, 84 Vt. 387, 80 A. 194 (1911);
202. Commonwealth v. Kennedy, 87 A. 605 (Pa., 1913);
203. Attorney General v. City of Grand Rapids, 175 Mich. 503,141 N.W. 890 (1913).
204. Whipple is quoted in 'Shall Waterways Be Sewers Forever?', The American City 35 (1926): 197.
205. See also National Resources Committee, Water Pollution in the United States, 71-2;
206. Joel A. Tarr, 'Industrial Wastes and Public Health: Some Historical Notes, Part I, 1876-1932', American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 1059-67;
207. Joel A. Tarr, Terry Yosie, and James McCurley, 'Disputes over Water Quality Policy: Professional Cultures in Conflict, 1900-1917', American Journal of Public Health 70 (1980): 427-35.
208. On Bense Act, see Edward J. Cleary, The ORSANCO Story: Water Quality Management in the Ohio Valley under an Interstate Compact (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press for the Resources for the Future, 1967), 21. The act was in force until 1948, when it was repealed to facilitate the establishment of the Ohio River Sanitary Commission (ORSANCO).
209. For estimates of national sewage treatment levels, see National Resources Committee, Third Report, 7.
210. For estimates of sewage treatment levels in some interstate watercourses, see Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II', 449-50.
211. See also Andrews, Managing the Environment, Managing Ourselves, 204;
212. Murphy, Water Purity, 87-8.
213. See Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U.S. 208 (1901), 200 U.S. 496 (1906);
214. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 278 U.S. 367 (1928);
215. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 281 U.S. 179 (1929);
216. Sanitary District of Chicago v. Unitged States, 266 U.S. 405 (1925);
217. Wisconsin v. Illinois, 289 U.S. 395 (1933):
218. See also Louis P. Cain, Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1978).
219. Platt, 'Chicago, the Great Lakes, and the Origins of Federal Urban Policy'.
220. See New York v. New Jersey, 256 U.S. 296 (1921);
221. New Jersey v. City of New York, 283 U.S. 473 (1931), 289 U.S. 712 (1932), 290 U.S. 237 (1933).
222. See also H. M. Beardsley, 'Interstate Pollution of Streams', Journal of the American Water Works Association 15 (1926), 335-40;
223. George C. Lay, 'Suits by States to Abate Nuisances', United States Law Review 65 (1931): 73-85.
224. See Rivers and Harbors Act, § 13, 30 Stat. 1152 (1899);
225. Public Health Service Act, 37 Stat. 309 (1912).
226. See also Diana D. Eames, 'The Refuse Act of 1899: Its Scope and Role in Control of Water Pollution', California Law Review 58 (1970): 1444-73;
227. Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control', 181-90;
228. N. William Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink: Public Regulation of Water Quality, Part III: The Federal Effort', Iowa Law Review 52 (1967): 799-861.
229. See John F. Reiger, American Sportsmen and the Origins of Conservation, rev. ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986).
230. See Herbert Hoover, 'Comments on Pollution', Outdoor America 6/3 (1927): 29.
231. On collaboration between the organisations, see 'The New Anti-Oil Pollution Law', Bird-Lore 26: 304 (1924).
232. See also Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control';
233. On conservation organisations, see Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Organizations (Boston: Little and Brown, 1981);
234. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Organizations (Washington: Island Press, 1993);
235. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, MS: Harvard University Press, 1959);
236. Grant McConnell, 'The Conservation Movement - Past and Present', Western Political Quarterly 7 (1954): 463-78.
237. On IWLA, see Scarpino, Great River.
238. Oil Pollution Act, 43 Stat. 604 (1924);
239. See also Gorman, Redefining Efficiency, 16-28;
240. N. William Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink: Public Regulation of Water Quality, Part III: The Federal Effort', Iowa Law Review 52 (1967): 799-861.
241. On Izaak Walton League, see William Voigt Jr, Born with Fists Doubled: Defending Outdoor America (Iowa City: Izaak Walton League of America Endowment, 1992).
242. On the general history of the League, see especially Voigt, Born with Fists Doubled;
243. Scarpino, Great River.
244. On Henry Baldwin Ward, see Hugh Hawkins, 'Transatlantic Discipleship: Two American Biologists and their German Mentor', Isis 71 (1980): 196-210.
245. William D. Hatfield lead the national water quality assessment for IWLA. See Charles W. Folds, 'National Pollution War Opens', Outdoor America 5/ 4 (1926): 5-6;
246. Charles W. Folds, 'Pollution Bureau Opens', Outdoor America 5/6 (1927): 26-7;
247. Charles W. Folds, 'Pollution Campaign Progresses', Outdoor America 5/7 (1927): 5;
248. William D. Hatfield, 'Sewage Pollution in the United States is Appalling', Outdoor America 5/10 (1927): 15-17;
249. William D. Hatfield, 'Sewage Pollution in the United States', Outdoor America 5/12 (1927): 12-13;
250. 'League's Conservation Platform', Outdoor America 10/6 (1932): 4.
251. On the Minnesota campaign for the treatment of Twin Cities' sewage, see Thomas Howard Hayden, Citizen Leadership in Conservation: The Minnesota Izaak Walton League, 1922-1972 (St Paul: Minnesota Izaak Walton League, 2001)
252. Scarpino, Great River.
253. See also Judson L. Wicks, 'Pollution of the Upper Mississippi', Outdoor America 4/9 (1926): 30-32, 72.
254. On the League's efforts to prevent the use of boundary waters for electricity generation, see International Joint Commission, Hearings of the International Joint Commission in re Levels of Rainy Lake and Other Upper Waters of the Woods Watershed and their Future Regulation and Control at International Falls, Minnesota, September 28-30, 1925 (Wahington DC: Government Printing Office, 1926);
255. International Joint Commission, Final Report on the Rainy Lake Reference (Ottawa: J. O. Patenaude, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty, 1934).
256. On the Izaak Walton League's activism in Wisconsin, see Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control'.
257. On the League's activism in Maine, see Judd, The Coming of Clean Water Acts in Maine'.
258. On the League's reasons for supporting federal legislation, see e.g. 'We Believe in Clean Streams, But - Say the Polluters Who Are Opposing the Lonergan Legislation', Outdoor America (New Series Vol. 1, June 1936), 7.
259. See 'A National Plan for Water Purification'. New Waltonian 2/7 (1935): 8-10;
260. Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control', 203-10.
261. See 'A National Plan for Water Purification', New Waltonian 2/7 (1935): 9-10.
262. See also Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control', 258-79.
263. See Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control', 284-310.
264. On Izaak Walton League's involvement in interstate compact preparations, see C.J. Velz, 'Stream Pollution with Special Reference to New York Metropolitan Waters', Outdoor America (New Series) 7 (March 1942), pp. 4-8.
265. for the reviews, see National Resources Committee, Report on Water Pollution;
266. National Resources Committee, Third Report.
267. On the sealing of abandoned coal mines, see Kenneth A. Reid, 'Sealing Abandoned Coal Mines', National Waltonian 2(8) (1935): 4-5, 16.
268. For information of federal funding and the proportion of people served by sewage treatment plants, see the National Resources Committee, Third Report, 5-7.
269. On interstate cooperation, see John Emerson Monger, 'Administrative Phases of Stream Pollution Control', American Journal of Public Health 16(1926): 788-94;
270. Almon L.Fales, 'Progress in the Control of Pollution by Industrial Wastes', American Journal of Public Health 18 (1928): 717, 727;
271. 'Progress Report on Agencies for the Control of Pollution by Industrial Wastes', Journal of American Water Works Association 11 (1924): 631;
272. 'Progress Report on Recent Developments in the Field of Industrial Wastes in Relation to Water Supply', Journal of American Water Works Association 16 (1926): 302-29;
273. Special Advisory Committee on Water Pollution of the National Resources Committee, Water Pollution in the United States: Third Report (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1939).
274. See also Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II';
275. On phenols, other industrial pollutants and drinking water, see Wellington Donaldson, 'Industrial Wastes in Relation to Water Supplies', American Journal of Public Health 11 (1921): 193-8.
276. See also Tarr, 'Industrial Wastes and Public Health'.
277. On the constitutionality of interstate compacts, see Felix Frankfurter and James M. Landis, 'The Compact Clause of the Constitution - A Study in Interstate Adjustments', Yale Law Journal 34 (1925): 685-749.
278. On the interstate compacts for water pollution control, see Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II'.
279. See Public Res. 62, 74th Congress, 49 Stat. 932 (1935);
280. Delaware River Basin Compact, P. L. 87-328, 75 Stat 688 (1961);
281. Pub. Res. 93, 76 Congress, 54 Stat. 748 (1940);
282. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Compact, 54 Stat. 752 (1940);
283. New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Compact, 61 Stat. 682 (1947);
284. See Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II;'
285. Water Pollution in the United States, 72-8.
286. On Interstate Sanitation Commission, see Seth G. Hess, 'Interstate Action to Control Pollution', State Government 23 (1950): 204-7.
287. See Cleary, The ORSANCO Story;
288. Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II'.
289. See Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Compact.
290. See Cleary, The ORSANCO Story. Interstate Sanitation Commission similarly emphasised influencing of public opinion and voluntary cooperation.
291. See Hess, 'Interstate Action to Control Pollution', 206.
292. See Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II', 452: fn107.
293. See Hines, 'Nor Any Drop to Drink II', 449-51.
294. See Kenneth A. Reid, 'Pollution Control - A Post-war Public Works Opportunity for the States', State Government (February 1945), 1-4. In the quote Reid summarises the Izaak Walton League of America's 1939 assessment of the ORSANCO compact.
295. On endorsement of interstate compacts, see Water Pollution Control Act, 62 Stat. 1155, Sec. 4 (1948).
296. On reform of state policies, see Suggested State Water Pollution Control Act and Explanatory Statement (Federal Security Agency, Public Health Service, Division of Water Pollution Control, 1950), 1.
297. On Izaak Walton League's activism in Wisconsin, see Flannery, 'Water Pollution Control', 51-72;
298. On activism in Maine, see Judd, 'The Coming of the Clean Water Acts in Maine'.
299. On activism in Minnesota, see Hayden, Citizen Leadership in Conservation.