The structure of the cushions in the feet of African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

Journal of Anatomy

Volumn 209, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 781-792

  Weissengruber, Gerald E ^a   Egger, G F ^a   Hutchinson, J R ^b   Groenewald, H B ^c   Elsasser L ^a   Famini, D ^d   Forstenpointner, G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE   (Austria)

^b ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA   (South Africa)

^d Humane Society of Sonoma County Animal Hospital   (United States)

Author keywords

Adipose tissue; Collagen; Elastic fibres; Foot pad; Meissner corpuscles; Prehallux; Prepollex; Torus; Vater Pacinian corpuscles

Indexed keywords

COLLAGEN;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ARTICLE; CARTILAGE; CATTLE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONNECTIVE TISSUE; DERMIS; ELASTIC FIBER; ELEPHANT; FOOT; FOOT SOLE; FORELIMB; HALLUX; HINDLIMB; HISTOLOGY; HORSE; INNERVATION; LEG BLOOD FLOW; MEISSNER CORPUSCLE; METACARPAL BONE; METATARSAL BONE; MICROMORPHOLOGY; MORPHOLOGY; MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PACINI CORPUSCLE; PHALANX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SENSORY RECEPTOR; SKIN; SKIN STRUCTURE; SPECIES COMPARISON; TARSAL BONE;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANIMALS; CONNECTIVE TISSUE; ELEPHANTS; FOOT; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; METACARPAL BONES; METATARSAL BONES; TARSAL BONES; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; WEIGHT-BEARING;

ANIMALIA; BOS TAURUS; ELEPHANTIDAE; EQUIDAE; LOXODONTA; LOXODONTA AFRICANA; VIBRIO;

EID: 33751209508     PISSN: 00218782     EISSN: 14697580     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00648.x     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Alexander R McN, Maloiy GMO, Hunter B, Jayes AS, Nturibi J (1979) Mechanical stresses in fast locomotion of buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and elephant (Loxodonta africana). J Zool 189, 135-144.
2. Alexander R McN, Bennett MB, Ker RF (1986) Mechanical properties and function of the paw pads of some animals. J Zool 209, 405-419.
3. Benz A (2005) The elephant's hoof: Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes. Inaugural Dissertation, Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich.
4. Benz A, Zenker W, Hildebrandt TB, Weissengruber G, Geyer H (2005) About the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of elephants' hooves (Elephantidae). Verh Ber Erkrg Zootiere 42, 167-170.
5. Blechschmidt E (1933) Die Architektur des Fersenpolsters. Gegenbaurs Morph Jb 73, 20-68.
6. Bojsen-Møller F, Flagstad KE (1976) Plantar aponeurosis and internal architecture of the ball of the foot. J Anat 121, 599-611.
7. Bowker RM, Brewer AM, Vex KB, et al. (1993) Sensory receptors in the equine foot. Am J Vet Res 54, 1840-1844.
8. Cauna N, Mannan G (1958) The structure of human digital Pacinian corpuscles (Corpuscula lamellosa) and its functional significance. J Anat 92, 1-20.
9. Cutts JH, Krause WJ (1983) Structure of the paws in Didelphis virginiana. Anat Anz 154, 329-335.
10. Eales NB (1928) The anatomy of a foetal African elephant, Elephas africanus (Loxodonta africana). Part II. The body muscles. Trans Roy Soc Edinburgh 55, 609-642.
11. Egerbacher M, Helmreich M, Probst A, König H, Böck P (2005) Digital cushions in horses comprise coarse connective tissue, myxoid tissue, and cartilage but only little unilocular fat tissue. Anat Histol Embryol 34, 112-116.
12. Fowler ME (1980) Hoof, claw, and nail problems in nondomestic animals. J Am Med Vet Assoc 177, 885-893.
13. Gage LJ (2001) Treatment of osteomyelitis in elephant feet. In The Elephant's Foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert, US), pp. 117-118. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
14. Gambaryan PP (1974) How Mammals Run. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
15. Güßgen B (1988) Vergleichende Zusammenstellung der Literaturbefunde über die Anatomie des Indischen und Afrikanischen Elefanten als Grundlage für tierärztliches Handeln. Dissertation, Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover.
16. Halata Z, Baumann KI (1999) Sensory nerve endings in the hard palate and papilla incisiva of the rhesus monkey. Anat Embryol 199, 427-437.
17. Hildebrand M, Hurley JP (1985) Energy of the oscillating legs of a fast-moving cheetah, pronghorn, jackrabbit, and elephant. J Morph 184, 23-31.
18. Hittmair KM, Vielgrader HD (2000) Radiographic diagnosis of lameness in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Vet Radiol Ultrasound 41, 511-515.
19. Hoffmann JN, Montag AG, Dominy NJ (2004) Meissner corpuscles and the somatosensory acuity: The prehensile appendages of primates and elephants. Anat Rec Part A 281A, 1138-1147.
20. Howell AB (1944) Speed in Animals: Their Specialization for Running and Leaping. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
21. Hutchinson JR, Famini D, Lair R, Kram R (2003) Are fast-moving elephants really running? Nature 422, 493-494.
22. Hutchinson JR, Schwerda D, Famini DJ, Dale R, Fischer M, Kram R (in press) The locomotor kinematics of Asian and African elephants: Changes with speed and size. J Exp Biol in press.
23. Ide C (1977) Development of Meissner corpuscle of mouse toe pad. Anat Rec 188, 49-67.
24. Jahss MH, Michelson JD, Desai P, et al. (1992) Investigations into the fat pads of the sole of the foot: Anatomy and histology. Foot Ankle 13, 233-242.
25. Keet DF, Grobler DG, Raath JP, Gouws J, Carstens J, Nesbit JW (1997) Ulcerative pododermatitis in free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 64, 25-32.
26. Ker RF (1999) The design of soft collagenous load-bearing tissues. J Exp Biol 202, 3315-3324.
27. Kimani JK (1984) The structural and functional organization of the connective tissue in the human foot with reference to the histomorphology of the elastic fibre system. Acta Morph Neerl-Scand 22, 313-323.
28. König HE, Macher R, Polsterer-Heindl E, et al. (2003) Stoßbrechende Einrichtungen am Zehenendorgan des Pferdes. Vet Med Austria 90, 267-273.
29. Köther H, Bürger M (1967) Ein Beitrag zur Behandlung eines Fußleidens beim indischen Elefanten. Verh Ber 9. International Symp Erkr Zootiere, Prag 249-251.
30. Leem JW, Willis WD, Chung JM (1993) Cutaneous sensory receptors in the rat foot. J Neurophysiol 69, 1684-1699.
31. Leydig F (1854) Öber die Vater-Pacinischen Körperchen der Taube. Z Wissenschaftliche Zool 5, 75-86.
32. Liebich H-G (1999) Funktionelle Histologie der Haussäugetiere, 3rd edn. Stuttgart: Schattauer.
33. Lillie RD (1954) Histopathologic Technic and Practical Histochemistry. New York: Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill.
34. Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, et al. (2004) Molecular Cell Biology, 5th edn. New York: W.H. Freeman.
35. Mariappa D (1955) The anatomy of the foetal Indian elephant. Part II. The muscles, nerves and blood vessels of the fore-limb. Indian Vet J 32, 170-202.
36. Mariappa D (1986) Anatomy and Histology of the Indian Elephant. Oak Park, MI: Indira.
37. Miall LC, Greenwood F (1878) The anatomy of the Indian elephant. Part I. The muscles of the extremities. J Anat Physiol 12, 261-287.
38. Miller-Young JE, Duncan NE, Baroud G (2002) Material properties of the human calcaneal fat pad in compression: Experiment and theory. J Biomech 35, 1523-1531.
39. Muybridge E (1899) Animals in Motion. New York: Dover.
40. Nauck ET (1938) Extremitätenskelett der Tetrapoden. In Hand-buch der Verleichenden Anatomie der Wirbeltiere, Fünter Band (L, Göppert E, Kallius E, Lubosch W), pp. 71-248. Berlin and Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg.
41. NAV (2005) Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria, 5th edn. World Association of Veterinary Anatomists. http://www.wava-amav.org/Downloads/nav_2005.pdf.
42. Neuville H (1927) Note préliminaire sur l'organisation du pied des éléphants. Bull Mus Natl d'Histoire Naturelle 33, 60-64.
43. e Série 13, 111-183.
44. Palmieri G, Asole A, Panu R (1980) Sul contingente nervoso sensitivo dei cuscinetti digitali del suino. Arch Ital Anat Embriol 85, 211-219.
45. Palmieri G, Sanna M, Minelli LB, et al. (2003) On the sensitive innervation of the ostrich's foot pads. Ital J Anat Embryol 108, 25-37.
46. Räber M, Lischer CJ, Geyer H, Ossent P (2004) The bovine digital cushion - a descriptive anatomical study. Vet J 167, 258-264.
47. Ramsay EC, Henry RW (2001) Anatomy of the elephant foot. In The Elephant's Foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 9-12. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
48. Rome K (1998) Mechanical properties of the heel pad: Current theory and review of the literature. Foot 8, 179-185.
49. Romeis B (1989) Mikroskopische Technik, 17th edn München und Wien: Urban & Schwarzenberg.
50. Ruthe H (1961) Fußleiden der Elefanten. Wiss Z Humboldt-University Berlin, Math-Nat R 10, 471-516.
51. Schaller O (1992) Illustrated Veterinary Anatomical Nomenclature. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke.
52. Simonetti S, Dahl K, Krarup C (1998) Different indentation velocities activate different populations of mechanoreceptors in humans. Muscle Nerve 21, 858-868.
53. Smuts MMS, Bezuidenhout AJ (1993) Osteology of the thoracic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J Vet Res 60, 1-14.
54. Smuts MMS, Bezuidenhout AJ (1994) Osteology of the pelvic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J Vet Res 61, 51-66.
55. Spinage C (1994) Elephants. London: Poyser.
56. Tachibana T, Fujiwara N, Nawa T (1991) Mechanoreceptors of the hard palate of the Mongolian gerbil include special junctions between epithelia and Meissner lamellar cells: A comparison with other rodents. Anat Rec 231, 396-403.
57. Taylor DD, Hood DM, Potter GD, Hogan HA, Honnas CM (2005) Evaluation of displacement of the digital cushion in response to vertical loading in equine forelimbs. Am J Vet Res 66, 623-629.
58. Tietze A (1921) Ueber den architektonischen Aufbau des Bindegewebes in der menschlichen Fußsohle. Bruns' Beiträge Zur Klinischen Chirurgie 123, 493-506.
59. Tong J, Lim CS, Goh OL (2003) Technique to study the biomechanical properties of the human calcaneal heel pad. Foot 13, 83-91.
60. Turnbull BG, Rasmusson DD (1986) Sensory innervation of the racoon forepaw: 1. Receptor types in glabrous and hairy skin and deep tissue. Somatosensory Res 4, 43-62.
61. Virchow H (1910) Hand und Fuss des Elefanten, nach Form zusammengesetzt. Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft der Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin, 77-87.
62. Weissengruber GE, Forstenpointner G (2004a) Musculature of the crus and pes of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): Insight into semiplantigrade limb architecture. Anat Embryol 208, 451-461.
63. Weissengruber GE, Forstenpointner G (2004b) Shock absorbers and more: design principles of the lower hindlimb in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J Morph 260, 339.
64. Weissengruber GE, Fuss FK, Egger G, Stanek G, Hittmair KM, Forstenpointner G (2006) The elephant knee joint: Morphological and biomechanical considerations. J Anat 208, 59-72.