Human cone light adaptation: From behavioral measurements to molecular mechanisms

Journal of Vision

Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2006, Pages 1194-1213

  Stockman, Andrew ^a   Langendörfer, Micha ^b   Smithson, Hannah E ^c   Sharpe, Lindsay T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b Forschungsstelle fur Experimentelle Ophthalmologie   (Germany)

^c DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cones; Light adaptation; Phase lags; Photopic; Protanopes; Sensitivity regulation; Temporal sensitivity; Visual transduction

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BLEACHING; CONTROLLED STUDY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; LIGHT ADAPTATION; MALE; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; PHOTOTRANSDUCTION; PSYCHOPHYSICS; RETINA CONE; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; STEADY STATE; VISION; VISUAL ADAPTATION; VISUAL SYSTEM;

ADAPTATION, OCULAR; CONES (RETINA); HUMANS; LIGHT; MALE; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; RETINAL PIGMENTS; SENSORY THRESHOLDS; TIME FACTORS; VISION; VISION DISPARITY;

EID: 33750840606     PISSN: 15347362     EISSN: 15347362     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1167/6.11.5     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Arshavsky, V. Y., Lamb, T. D., & Pugh, E. N., Jr. (2002). G proteins and phototransduction. Annual Review of Physiology, 64, 153-187.[PubMed]
2. Baker, C. H. (1952a). The dependence of binocular fusion on timing of peripheral stimuli and on central process: 1. Symmetrical flicker. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 6, 1-10. [PubMed]
3. Baker, C. H. (1952b). The dependence of binocular fusion on timing of peripheral stimuli and on central process. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 6, 84-91. [PubMed]
4. Baker, C. H. (1952c). The dependence of binocular fusion on timing of peripheral stimuli and on central process: 2. Asymmetrical flicker. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 6, 123-130. [PubMed]
5. Baker, C. H. (1952d). The dependence of binocular fusion on timing of peripheral stimuli and on central process: 3. Cortical flicker. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 6, 151-163. [PubMed]
6. Baker, C. H., & Bott, E. A. (1951). Studies on visual flicker and fusion: II. Effects of timing of visual stimuli on binocular fusion and flicker. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 5, 9-17. [PubMed]
7. Barlow, H. B., & Levick, W. R. (1976). Threshold setting by the surround of cat retinal ganglion cells. The Journal of Physiology, 259, 737-757. [PubMed] [Article]
8. Bauer, P. J. (1996). Cyclic GMP-gated channels of bovine rod photoreceptors: Affinity, density and stoichiometry of Ca(2+)-calmodulin binding sites. The Journal of Physiology, 494, 675-685. [PubMed] [Article]
9. Baylor, D. A., & Hodgkin, A. L. (1974). Changes in time scale and sensitivity in turtle photoreceptors. The Journal of Physiology, 242,. 729-758. [PubMed] [Article]
10. Baylor, D. A., Hodgkin, A. L., & Lamb, T. D. (1974). The electrical response of turtle cones to flashes and steps of fight. The Journal of Physiology, 242, 685-727. [PubMed] [Article]
11. Bouguer, M. (1760). Traité d'optique sur la gradation de la lumier̀e. Paris: De la Calle.
12. Boynton, R. M., & Whitten, D. N. (1970). Visual adaptation in monkey cones: Recordings of late receptor potentials. Science, 170, 1423-1426. [PubMed]
13. Burkhardt, D. A. (1994). Light adaptation and photopigment bleaching in cone photoreceptors in situ in the retina of the turtle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 14, 1091-1105. [PubMed] [Article]
14. Burns, M. E., & Baylor, D. A. (2001). Activation, deactivation and adaptation in vertebrate photoreceptor cells. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 779-805. [PubMed]
15. Burns, S. A., & Elsner, A. E. (1985). Color matching at high luminances: The color-match-area effect and photopigment bleaching. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, Optics and Image Science, 2, 698-704. [PubMed]
16. Burns, S. A., & Elsner, A. E. (Eds.) (1989). Localizing color vision deficiencies in eye disease (vol. IX). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
17. Burton, G. J. (1973). Evidence for non-linear response processes in the human visual system from measurements on the thresholds of spatial beat frequencies. Vision Research, 13, 1211-1225. [PubMed]
18. Carroll, J., Neitz, M., Hofer, H., Neitz, J., & Williams, D. R. (2004). Functional photoreceptor loss revealed with adaptive optics: An alternative cause of color blindness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 8461-8466. [PubMed] [Article]
19. Cavonius, C. R. (1979). Binocular interactions in flicker. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 273-280. [PubMed]
20. Cavonius, C. R., & Estévez, O. (1980). Applications of signal-processing methods in visual psychophysics. In M. Kunt & F. de Coulon (Eds.), Signal processing: Theories and applications (pp. 343-349). Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
21. Cavonius, C. R., Estévez, O., & van der Tweel, L. H. (1992). Counterphase dichoptic flicker is seen as its own second harmonic. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics, 12, 153-156. [PubMed]
22. Chen, T. Y., Illing, M., Molday, L. L., Hsu, Y. T., Yau, K. W., & Molday, R. S. (1994). Subunit 2 (or beta) of retinal rod cGMP-gated cation channel is a component of the 240-kDa channel-associated protein and mediates Ca(2+)-calmodulin modulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 11757-11761. [PubMed] [Article]
23. De Lange, H. (1954). Relationship between critical flicker frequency and a set of low-frequency characteristics of the eye. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 44, 380-389.
24. De Lange, H. (1958). Research into the dynamic nature of the human fovea-cortex systems with intermittent and modulated light: I. Attenuation characteristics with white and colored light. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 48, 777-784.
25. De Lange, H. (1961). Eye's response at flicker fusion to square-wave modulation of a test field surrounded by a large steady field of equal mean luminance. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 51, 415-421.
26. Dowling, J. E., & Ripps, H. (1970). Visual adaptation in the retina of the skate. The Journal of General Physiology, 56, 491-520. [PubMed] [Article]
27. Fain, G. L., Lamb, T. D., Matthews, H. R., & Murphy, R. L. (1989). Cytoplasmic calcium as the messenger for light adaptation in salamander rods. The Journal of Physiology, 416, 215-243. [PubMed] [Article]
28. Fain, G. L., Matthews, H. R., & Cornwall, M. C. (1996). Dark adaptation in vertebrate photoreceptors. Trends in Neurosciences, 19, 502-507. [PubMed]
29. Fain, G. L., Matthews, H. R., Cornwall, M. C., & Koutalos, Y. (2001). Adaptation in vertebrate photoreceptors. Physiological Reviews, 81, 117-151. [PubMed] [Article]
30. Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik. Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel.
31. Fuortes, M. G., & Hodgkin, A. L. (1964). Changes in time scale and sensitivity in the ommatidia of limulus. The Journal of Physiology, 172, 239-263. [PubMed] [Article]
32. Geisler, W. S. (1978). Adaptation, afterimages and cone saturation. Vision Research, 18, 279-289. [PubMed]
33. Graham, N., & Hood, D. C. (1992). Modeling the dynamics of light adaptation: The merging of two traditions. Vision Research, 32, 1373-1393. [PubMed]
34. Gray-Keller, M. P., & Detwiler, P. B. (1996). Ca2+ dependence of dark- and light-adapted flash responses in rod photoreceptors. Neuron, 17, 323-331. [PubMed]
35. Green, D. G. (1968). The contrast sensitivity of the colour mechanisms of the human eye. The Journal of Physiology, 196, 415-429. [PubMed] [Article]
36. Grunwald, M. E., Yu, W. P., Yu, H. H., & Yau, K. W. (1998). Identification of a domain on the beta-subunit of the rod cGMP-gated cation channel that mediates inhibition by calcium-calmodulin. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 9148-9157. [PubMed] [Article]
37. Hayhoe, M. M., Benimoff, N. I., & Hood, D. C. (1987). The time course of multiplicative and subtractive adaptation process. Vision Research, 27, 1981-1996. [PubMed]
38. Hecht, S. (1937). Rods, cones and the chemical basis of vision. Physiological Reviews, 17, 239-290.
39. Hodgkin, A. L., & Nunn, B. J. (1988). Control of light-sensitive current in salamander rods. The Journal of Physiology, 403, 439-471. [PubMed] [Article]
40. Hood, D. C. (1998). Lower-level visual processing and models of light adaptation. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 503-535. [PubMed]
41. Hood, D. C., & Birch, D. G. (1993). Human cone receptor activity: The leading edge of the a-wave and models of receptor activity. Visual Neuroscience, 10, 857-871. [PubMed]
42. Hood, D. C., & Finkelstein, M. A. (1986). Sensitivity to light. In K. Boff, L. Kaufman, & J. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of Perception and Human Performance (vol. 1, pp. 5-1-5-66). New York: Wiley.
43. Hood, D. C., Finkelstein, M. A., & Buckingham, E. (1979). Psychophysical. tests of models of the response function. Vision Research, 19, 401-406. [PubMed]
44. Hood, D. C., Graham, N., von Wiegand, T. E., & Chase, V. M. (1997). Probed-sinewave paradigm: A test of . models of light-adaptation dynamics. Vision Research, 37, 1177-1191. [PubMed]
45. Hsu, Y. T., & Molday, R. S. (1993). Modulation of the cGMP-gated channel of rod photoreceptor cells by calmodulin. Nature, 361, 76-79. [PubMed]
46. Hsu, Y. T., & Molday, R. S. (1994). Interaction of calmodulin with the cyclic GMP-gated channel of rod photoreceptor cells. Modulation of activity, affinity purification, and localization. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 269, 29765-29770. [PubMed] [Article]
47. Ireland, F. H. (1950). A comparison of critical flicker frequencies under conditions of monocular and binocular stimulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 282-286. [PubMed]
48. Kelly, D. H. (1961a). Flicker fusion and harmonic analysis. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 51, 917-918. [PubMed]
49. Kelly, D. H. (1961b). Visual response to time-dependent stimuli: I. Amplitude sensitivity measurements. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 51, 422-429. [PubMed]
50. Kelly, D. H. (1964). Sine waves and flicker fusion. Documenta Ophthalmologica, 18, 16-35. [PubMed]
51. Kelly, D. H. (1972). Flicker. In D. Jameson & L. H. Hurvich (Eds.), Visual psychophysics, handbook of sensory physiology (vol. VII/4, pp. 273-302). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
52. Kelly, D. H. (1974). Spatio-temporal frequency characteristics of color-vision mechanisms. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 64, 983-990.
53. Koutalos, Y., Nakatani, K., Tamura, T., & Yau, K. W. (1995). Characterization of guanylate cyclase activity in single retinal rod outer segments. The Journal of General Physiology, 106, 863-890. [PubMed] [Article]
54. Koutalos, Y., Nakatani, K., & Yau, K.-W. (1995). The cGMP-phosphodiesterase and its contribution to sensitivity regulation in retinal rods. The Journal of General Physiology, 106, 891-921. [PubMed] [Article]
55. Koutalos, Y., & Yau, K. W. (1996). Regulation of sensitivity in vertebrate rod photoreceptors by calcium. Trends in Neurosciences, 19, 73-81. [PubMed]
56. Lamb, T. D., & Pugh, E. N., Jr. (2004). Dark adaptation and the retinoid cycle of vision. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 23, 307-380. [PubMed]
57. Lee, B. B., Dacey, D. M., Smith, V. C., & Pokorny, J. (1999). Horizontal cells reveal cone type-specific adaptation in primate retina. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96, 14611-14616. [PubMed] [Article]
58. Lee, B. B., Dacey, D. M., Smith, V. C., & Pokorny, J. (2003). Dynamics of sensitivity regulation in primate outer retina: The horizontal cell network. Journal of Vision, 3(7), 513-526, http:/ /journalofvision.org/3/ 7/5/, ddi:10.1167/3.7.5. [PubMed] [Article]
59. Leibrock, C. S., Reuter, T., & Lamb, T. D. (1998). Molecular basis of dark adaptation in rod photoreceptors. Eye, 12, 511-520. [PubMed]
60. Lit, A. (1949). The magnitude of the Pulfrich stereophenomenon as a function of binocular differences of intensity at various levels of illumination. American Journal of Psychology, 62, 159-181.
61. MacLeod, D. I. (1978). Visual sensitivity. Annual Review of Psychology, 29, 613-645. [PubMed]
62. MacLeod, D. I., & He, S. (1993). Visible flicker from invisible patterns. Nature, 361, 256-258. [PubMed]
63. MacLeod, D. I., Williams, D. R., & Makous, W. (1992). A visual nonlinearity fed by single cones. Vision Research, 32, 347-363. [PubMed]
64. Mahroo, O. A., & Lamb, T. D. (2004). Recovery of the human photopic electroretinogram after bleaching exposures: Estimation of pigment regeneration kinetics. The Journal of Physiology, 554, 417-437. [PubMed] [Article]
65. Matin, L. (1968). Critical duration, the differential luminance threshold, critical flicker frequency, and visual adaptation: A theoretical treatment. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 58, 404-415. [PubMed]
66. Matthews, H. R. (1996). Static and dynamic actions of cytoplasmic Ca2+ in the adaptation of responses to saturating flashes in salamander rods. The Journal of Physiology, 490, 1-15. [PubMed] [Article]
67. Matthews, H. R. (1997). Actions of Ca2+ on an early stage in phototransduction revealed by the dynamic fall in Ca2+ concentration during the bright flash response. The Journal of General Physiology, 109, 141-146. [PubMed] [Article]
68. Matthews, H. R., Murphy, R. L. W., Fain, G. L., & Lamb, T. D. (1988). Photoreceptor light adaptation is mediated by cytoplasmic calcium concentration. Nature, 334, 67-69. [PubMed]
69. Merbs, S. L., & Nathans, J. (1992). Absorption spectra of the hybrid pigments responsible for anomalous color vision. Science, 258, 464-466. [PubMed]
70. Murnick, J. G., & Lamb, T. D. (1996). Kinetics of desensitization induced by saturating flashes in toad and salamander rods. The Journal of Physiology, 495, 1-13. [PubMed] [Article]
71. Nikonov, S., Engheta, N., & Pugh, E. N., Jr. (1998). Kinetics of recovery of the dark-adapted salamander rod photoresponse. The Journal of General Physiology, 111, 7-37. [PubMed] [Article]
72. Parinaud, H. (1881). L'héméralopie et les fonctions du pourple visuel. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances et mémories de la Société de biologie, 93, 286-287.
73. Penn, R. D., & Hagins, W. A. (1972). Kinetics of photocurrent of retinal rods. Biophysical Journal, 12, 1073-1094. [PubMed] [Article]
74. Pepperberg, D. R. (2003). Bleaching desensitization: Background and current challenges. Vision Research, 43, 3011-3019. [PubMed]
75. Perlman, I., & Normann, R. A. (1998). Light adaptation and sensitivity controlling mechanisms in vertebrate photoreceptors. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 17, 523-563. [PubMed]
76. Perrin, F. H. (1954). A study in binocular flicker. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 44, 60-69. [PubMed]
77. Plateau, J. (1835). Sur un principle de photométrie. Bulletins de l'Académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Bruxelles, 2, 52-59.
78. Polans, A., Baehr, W., & Palczewski, K. (1996). Turned on by Ca2+! The physiology and pathology of Ca(2+)-binding proteins in the retina. Trends in Neurosciences, 19, 547-554. [PubMed]
79. Pugh, E. N., Jr., Duda, T., Sitaramayya, A., & Sharma, R. K. (1997). Photoreceptor guanylate cyclases: A review. Bioscience Reports, 17, 429-473. [PubMed]
80. Pugh, E. N., Jr., & Lamb, T. D. (2000). Phototransduction in vertebrate rods and cones: Molecular mechanisms of amplification, recovery and light adaptation. In D. G. Stavenga, W. J. de Grip, & E. N. Pugh (Eds.), Handbook of biological physics: Vol. 3. Molecular mechanisms of visual transduction (pp. 183-255). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
81. Pugh, E. N., Jr., Nikonov, S., & Lamb, T. D. (1999). Molecular mechanisms of vertebrate photoreceptor light adaptation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9, 410-418. [PubMed]
82. Pulfrich, C. (1922). Die Stereskopie im Dienste der isochromen und heterochromen Photemetrie. Naturwissenschaften, 10, 553-564, 569-574, 596-601, 714-722, 735-743, 751-761.
83. Rebrik, T. I., & Korenbrot, J. I. (1998). In intact cone photoreceptors, a Ca2+-dependent, diffusible factor modulates the cGMP-gated ion channels differently than in rods. The Journal of General Physiology, 112, 537-548. [PubMed] [Article]
84. Reeves, A., Wu, S., & Schirillo, J. (1998). The effect of photon noise on the detection of white flashes. Vision Research, 38, 691-703. [PubMed]
85. Rock, M. L., & Fox, B. H. (1949). Two aspects of the Pulfrich phenomenon. American Journal of Psychology, 62, 279-284.
86. Roufs, J. A. (1972a). Dynamic properties of vision: I. Experimental relationships between flicker and flash thresholds. Vision Research, 12, 261-278. [PubMed]
87. Roufs, J. A. (1972b). Dynamic properties of vision: II. Theoretical relationship between flicker and flash thresholds. Vision Research, 12, 279-292. [PubMed]
88. Rushton, W. A. (1963). A cone pigment in the protanope. The Journal of Physiology, 168, 345-359. [PubMed] [Article]
89. Rushton, W. A. (1965). A foveal pigment in the deuteranope. The Journal of Physiology, 176, 24-37. [PubMed] [Article]
90. Schnapf, J. L., Nunn, B. J., Meister, M., & Baylor, D. A. (1990). Visual transduction in cones of the monkey Macaca fascicularis. The Journal of Physiology, 427, 681-713. [PubMed] [Article]
91. Schultze, M. (1866). Zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Retina. Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik, 2, 175-286.
92. Shapley, R., & Enroth-Cugell, C. (1984). Visual adaptation and retinal gain controls. In N. Osborne & G. Chader (Eds.), Progress in retinal research (vol. 3, pp. 263-346). New York: Pergamon Press.
93. Sharpe, L. T., Stockman, A., Jägle, H., Knau, H., Klausen, G., Reitner, A., et al. (1998). Red, green, and red-green hybrid photopigments in the human retina: Correlations between deduced protein sequences and psychophysically-measured spectral sensitivities. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 10053-10069. [PubMed] [Article]
94. Sherrington, C. S. (1906). The integrative action of the nervous system. New Haven: Yale University Press.
95. Smith, V. C., Lee, B. B., Pokorny, J., Martin, P. R., & Valberg, A. (1992). Responses of macaque ganglion cells to the relative phase of heterochromatically modulated lights. The Journal of Physiology, 458, 191-221. [PubMed] [Article]
96. Smith, V. C., Pokorny, J., Lee, B. B., & Dacey, D. M. (2001). Primate horizontal cell dynamics: An analysis of sensitivity regulation in the outer retina. Journal of Neurophysiology, 85, 545-558. [PubMed] [Article]
97. Smith, V. C., Pokorny, J., & van Norren, D. (1983). Densitometric measurement of human cone photopigment kinetics. Vision Research, 23, 517-524. [PubMed]
98. Sperling, G., & Sondhi, M. M. (1968). Model for visual luminance discrimination and flicker detection. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 58, 1133-1145. [PubMed]
99. Stockman, A., MacLeod, D. I., & Lebrun, S. J. . (1993). Faster than the eye can see: Blue cones respond to rapid flicker. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, Optics and Image Science, 10, 1396-1402. [PubMed]
100. Stockman, A., & Plummer, D. J. (2005a). Long-wavelength adaptation reveals slow, spectrally opponent inputs to the human luminance pathway. Journal of Vision, 5(9), 702-716, http://journalofvision.org/5/9/5/, doi:10.1167/5.9.5. [PubMed] [Article]
101. Stockman, A., & Plummer, D. J. (2005b). Spectrally-opponent inputs to the human luminance pathway: slow +L and -M cone inputs revealed by low to moderate long-wavelength adaptation. The Journal of Physiology, 566, 77-91. [PubMed] [Article]
102. Stockman, A., Plummer, D. J., & Montag, E. D. (2005). Spectrally opponent inputs to the human luminance pathway: Slow +L and -M cone inputs revealed by intense long-wavelength adaptation. The Journal of Physiology, 566, 61-76. [PubMed] [Article]
103. Stockman, A., & Sharpe, L. T. (2000). Spectral sensitivities of the middle- and long-wavelength sensitive cones derived from measurements in observers of known genotype. Vision Research, 40, 1711-1737. [PubMed]
104. Stromeyer, C. F., III, Gowdy, P. D., Chaparro, A., Kladakis, S., Willen, J. D., & Kronauer, R. E. 2000). Colour adaptation modifies the temporal properties of the long- and middle-wave cone signals in the human luminance mechanism. The Journal of Physiology, 526, 177-194. [PubMed] [Article]
105. Talbot, H. F. (1834). Experiments on light. Philosophical Magazine Series 3, 5, 321-334.
106. Tamura, T., Nakatani, K., & Yau, K. W. (1991). Calcium feedback and sensitivity in primate rods. The Journal of General Physiology, 98, 95-130. [PubMed] [Article]
107. Thomas, G. J. (1954). The effect on critical flicker frequency of interocular differences in intensity and in phase relations of flashes of light. The American Journal of Psychology, 67, 632-646. [PubMed]
108. Thomas, G. J. (1955). A comparison of uniocular and binocular critical flicker frequencies: simultaneous and alternate flashes. The American Journal of Psychology, 68, 37-53. [PubMed]
109. Thomas, G. J. (1956). Effect of contours on binocular CFF obtained with synchronous and alternate flashes. The American Journal of Psychology, 69, 369-377. [PubMed]
110. Torre, V., Matthews, H. R., & Lamb, T. D. (1986). Role of calcium in regulating the cyclic GMP cascade of phototransduction in retinal rods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 83, 7109-7113. [PubMed] [Article]
111. Tranchina, D., Gordon, J., & Shapley, R. M. (1984). Retinal light adaptation - Evidence for a feedback mechanism. Nature, 310, 314-316. [PubMed]
112. Valeton, J. M., & van Norren, D. (1983). Light adaptation of primate cones: An analysis based on extracellular data. Vision Research, 23, 1539-1547. [PubMed]
113. van Hateren, H. (2005). A cellular and molecular model of response kinetics and adaptation in primate cones and horizontal cells. Journal of Vision, 5(4), 331-347, http://journalofvision.org/5/4/5/, doi-10.1167/ 5.4.5. [PubMed] [Article]
114. von Kries, J. (1894). Über den Einfluβ der Adaptation auf Licht- und Farbenempfindung und über die Funktion der Stäbchen. Bericht der naturforschungs Gesellschaft, Freiburg im Breisgau, 9, 61-70.
115. von Kries, J. (1896). Über die Funktion der Netzhautstäbchen. Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 9, 81-123.
116. von Kries, J. (1902). Theoretische studien Über die Umstimmung des Sehorgans. Festschrift der Albrecht-Ludwig-Universität. English translation by MacAdam, D. L. (1970). Sources of color science (pp. 109-119). Cambridge: MIT Press.
117. von Wiegand, T. E., Hood, D. C., & Graham, N. (1995). Testing a computational model of light-adaptation dynamics. Vision Research, 35, 3037-3051. [PubMed]
118. Watson, A. B. (1986). Temporal sensitivity. In K. Boff, L. Kaufman, & J. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance (vol. 1, pp. 6-1-6-43). New York: Wiley.
119. Weitz, D., Zoche, M., Muller, F., Beyermann, A, Korschen, H. G., Kaupp, U. B., et al. (1998). Calmodulin controls the rod photoreceptor CNG chwmel through an unconventional binding site in the N-terminus of the beta-subunit. The European Molecular Biology Organization Journal, 17, 2273-2284. [PubMed] [Article]
120. Whitlock, G. G., & Lamb, T. D. (1999). Variability in the time course of single photon responses from toad rods: Termination of rhodopsin's activity. Neuron, 23, 337-351. [PubMed] [Article]
121. Wilson, J. A., & Anstis, S. M. (1969). Visual delay as a function of luminance. The American Journal of Psychology, 82, 350-358. [PubMed]