The role of the judiciary in promoting sustainable development: The experience of Asia and the Pacific

Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 9, Issue 2-3, 2005, Pages 109-211

  Preston, Brian J ^a  

^a Land and Environment Court of New South Wales ^*  (Australia)

Author keywords

Biological diversity; Intergenerational and intragenerational equity; Polluter pays; Precautionary principle; Public trust; Role of the judiciary; Sustainable development

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASIA; CONSERVATION BIOLOGY; DECISION MAKING; ECOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION; ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY; INFORMATION DISSEMINATION; JURISPRUDENCE; LAW ENFORCEMENT; LEGAL ASPECT; PACIFIC ISLANDS; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; TRUST;

EID: 33750840315     PISSN: 13852140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (544)

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2. See Johannesburg Principles on the Role of Law and Sustainable Development adopted at the Global Judges Symposium (Johannesburg South Africa: 20 August 2002) 4
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4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Judges Programme (2005).
5. Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1993): paras 8.13-8.15 and 8.18.
6. D. Kaniaru, L. Kurukulasuriya and C. Okidi "UNEP Judicial Symposium on the Rok of the Judiciary in Promoting Sustainable Development" presented to the Fifth International Conference on Environmental Compliance and Enforcement held in Monterey California USA in November 1998, Conference Proceedings, 22.
7. At the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. See A. Kiss and D. Shelton International Environmental Law (Transnational Publishers: 1991) 7
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12. See R. Carson Silent Spring (Houghton Mufflin Books: 1962).
13. N. Meyers The Sinking Ark: A New Look at the Problems of Disappearing Species (Pergamon Press, Oxford: 1979) 30-31
14. and B. J. Preston "The Role of Law and the Protection of Biological Diversity in the Asia and Pacific Region" (1995) 12 EPLJ 265.
15. T. R. Malthus (1766-1834) was a British political economist who contended that population, tending to increase faster than the means of subsistence, should be checked by social and moral restraints.
16. To use Snyder's words as quoted in G. Session "Spinoza, Perennial Philosophy and Deep Ecology" presented at "Philosophy, Where are You?" held at Dominican College, San Raphael California, on 29 June - 4 July 1979.
17. See H. E. Daly Toward a Steady State Economy (W. H. Freeman & Co, San Francisco: 1973)
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19. A. Gorz Ecology as Politics (South End Press, Boston: 1980).
20. 11 ILM 1416 (1972).
21. See also L. B. Sohn "The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment" (1973) 14 Harvard International Law Journal 423
22. A. Kiss and D. Shelton, note 6 at 36-42
23. and V. Koester "From Stockholm to Brundtland" (1990) 20 Environmental Policy and Law 14.
24. 11 ILM 1421 (1972).
25. IUCN, UNEP and WWF World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development (Gland, Switzerland: 1980).
26. Ibid, Sections 2-7.
27. Ibid, Section 1(4).
28. See Department of Home Affairs and Environment "Towards a National Conservation Strategy - A Discussion Paper" (AGPS, Canberra: 1982) 1.
29. Ibid.
30. National Conservation Strategy for Australia: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development (AGPS, Canberra: 1984) 7.
31. Ibid, 9 para 4.
32. Ibid, 13 para 17.
33. Ibid, 13 para 18.
34. Ibid, 16 para 25.
35. Ibid, 17-21 paras 26-35.
36. 22 ILM 455 (1983).
37. See E. Brown Weiss, D. Magraw and P. Szasz International Environmental Law: Basic Instruments and References (Transnational Publishers: 1992) 188
38. and P. W. Birnie and A. E. Boyle International Law and the Environment (Clarendon Press, Oxford: 1992) 431-432
39. and Sands, note 6 at 45.
40. B. Boer "Institutionalising Ecologically Sustainable Development: The Roles of National, State and Local Governments in Translating Grand Strategy into Action" (1995) 31 Willamette Law Review 307 at 309-310.
41. World Charter for Nature, note 27, Article 14.
42. Ibid, Article 21(a)-(e).
43. See WCED Our Common Future (Australian ed, Oxford University Press, Melbourne: 1990) 392
44. and E. Brown Weiss, D. Magraw and P. Szasz, note 28 at 188
45. Sands, note 6 at 48-50
46. and M. C. Cordonier Segger and A. Khalfan Sustainable Development Law: Principles, Practices and Prospects (Oxford University Press: 2004) 18-19.
47. WCED, note 32 at 387.
48. United Nations The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio (United Nations Department of Public Information, New York: 1992) 3.
49. IUCN, UNEP and WWF Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living (Earthscan, London: 1991).
50. See further, P. W. Birnie and A. E. Boyle, note 28 at 428-430
51. and Sands, note 6 at 47-48.
52. Note 35 at 89-162.
53. Ibid, 68.
54. B. Boer, note 29 at 343.
55. Ibid, 307.
56. The Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment was signed in May 1992
57. Ibid, cl 3.1.
58. Ibid, cl 3.5.
59. Ibid, cl 3.5.
60. B. Boer "The Globalisation of Environmental Law: The Role of the United Nations" (1995) 20 Melbourne University Law Review 103
61. and Sands, note 6 at 52-53.
62. B. Boer, note 29 at 312.
63. B. Boer, note 44 at 101
64. B. Boer, note 28 at 312-315.
65. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 31 ILM 874(1992) Recital 2 of the Preamble.
66. See also Sands, note 6 at 54-57.
67. Agenda 21, note 4 Introduction at 3.
68. See further Sands, note 6 at 57-59.
69. Ibid, Chapter 1 para 1.1.
70. Ibid. Chapter 1 para 1.6.
71. Ibid, Chapter 8 para 8.7.
72. National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development: Appendices A, B and C respectively .
73. Ibid, 10.
74. Ibid, 17.
75. See GA Res. 47/191(1992).
76. ESCAP Environment News April-June (1993) 4.
77. See M.C. Cordonier Segger and A. Khalfan, note 32 at 22-23.
78. United Nations Millennium Declaration, GA Res. 55/2 (2000) .
79. Ibid, para 6.
80. Ibid, para 7.
81. Ibid, para 21.
82. Ibid, para 22.
83. Ibid, para 23.
84. See M.C. Cordonier Segger and A. Khalfan, note 32 at 25-43
85. and Sands, note 6 at 66-69.
86. Johannesburg Plan of Implementation para 2
87. Ibid, para 4.
88. Ibid, para 139.
89. Ibid, para 162(a).
90. Ibid, para 163.
91. Ibid, para 163.
92. K. Toepfer "UNEP Executive-Director's Background Paper to the Global Judges Symposium" presented at the Global Judges Symposium "Sustainable Development and the Role of Law" held in Johannesburg, South Africa on 18-20 August 2002, 13.
93. Johannesburg Principles on the Role of Law and Sustainable Development adopted at the Global Judges Symposium "Sustainable Development and the Role of Law" Johannesburg, South Africa 18-20 August, 2002 at 3-4.
94. Ibid, 4-5.
95. Revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Article IV .
96. WCED Our Common Future (1987) 44.
97. Sands, note 6 at 253.
98. G. Bates Environmental Law in Australia (5th ed, Lexis Nexis Butterworths: 2002) 125 [5.15].
99. Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment paras 3.5.1-3.5.4.
100. This fourfold formulation of the principles of sustainable development has been adopted at both Commonwealth and State level in Australia in numerous environmental statutes; see, as at 1999, the list of statutes in P. Stein and S. Mahoney "Incorporating Sustainability Principles in Legislations" in P. Leadbetter, N. Gunningham and B. Boer Environmental Outlook No. 3: Law and Policy (Federation Press: 1999) 72-75.
101. The list has grown in number since then. For a discussion of how the principles apply in New South Wales, Australia, see BGP Properties Pty Ltd v Lake Macquarie City Council (2004) 138 LGERA 237 at 253-254[87].
102. J. Moffet and F. Bregha "The Role of Law in the Promotion of Sustainable Development" (1996) 6 Journal of Environmental Law and Practice 3.
103. M. Decleris The Law of Sustainable Development: General Principles (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities: 2000).
104. Ibid, 67-75.
105. Ibid, 76-84.
106. Ibid, 85-90.
107. Ibid, 91-93.
108. Ibid, 94-98.
109. Ibid, 99-100. See the discussion on public trust in Section 8 below.
110. Ibid. 101-105.
111. Ibid, 106-112.
112. Ibid, 113-115.
113. Ibid, 116-120.
114. Ibid, 121-122.
115. Ibid, 123-124.
116. Commission of the European Communities Draft Declaration on Guiding Principles for Sustainable Development Communication for the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament (25 May 2005)
117. Ibid, 5-6.
118. AIR 2000 SC 3751.
119. Ibid, 3804[150] per B.N. Kirpal J with whom Dr A.S. Anand CJI agreed.
120. 37 ILM 162 (1998).
121. Ibid, 165.
122. Ibid, 206-207.
123. Ibid, 207-213.
124. Ibid, 213.
125. S. Boehmer-Christiansen "The Precautionary Principle in Germany - Enabling Government" in O'Riordan and J Cameron (eds) Interpreting the Precautionary Principle (Earthscan Publications: 1994) 31-60
126. J Cameron and J. Abouchar "The Precautionary Principle: A Fundamental Principle of Law and Policy for the Protection of the Global Environment" (1991) 14 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 6-7
127. N. de Sadeleer Environmental Principles, From Political Slogans to Legal Rules (Oxford University Press: 2002) 93, 125-130
128. Cordonier Segger and Khalfan, note 32 at 143-144
129. and Sands, note 6 at 267.
130. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Preamble. 26 ILM 1516 (1987).
131. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 26 ILM 1541 (1987) paras 6 and 8.
132. Sands, note 6 at 269
133. and de Sadeleer, note 102 at 94.
134. Second North Sea Conference Ministerial Declaration 1987.
135. ILM 835 (1988) Articles VII, XV(i) and XVI (i) (emphasis added).
136. Third North Sea Conference Ministerial Declaration 1990
137. Reprinted in 1 Yearbok of Internatin Envirnment Law 658 at 662-673
138. Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 32 ILM 1069 (1993) Article 2(2)(a). This Convention is not yet in force.
139. UNECE Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Development in the ECE Region, UN Doc. A/CONF. 151/PC/10 (Bergen, 16 May 1990) para 7.
140. 30 ILM 773 (1991). The Bamako Convention came into force April 1998.
141. Ibid, Article 4(3)(f).
142. Declaration on Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific, 1990 para. 19.
143. Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 31 ILM 1312 (1992). Article 2(5)(a).
144. The two Conventions have now come into force and are thus binding under international law: the Convention on Biological Diversity on 29 December 1993
145. the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on 24 March 1993.
146. Convention on Biological Diversity Preamble 31 ILM 822 (1992).
147. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 31 ILM 849 (1992) Article 3(3).
148. Agenda 21, note 4 at Chapter 1, para 17.21.
149. Agenda 21, note 4 at Chapter 18 para 18.40.
150. Agenda 21, note 4 at Chapter 35 para 35.3.
151. See the conventions cited in Sands, note 6 at 271
152. and de Sadeleer, note 102 at 98.
153. Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, 1973 12 ILM 1085 (1973). The Convention came into force 1 July 1975.
154. Resolution of the Conference of the Parties of CITES, Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Fort Lauderdale, USA 7-18 November 1994.
155. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 39 ILM 1027 (2000).
156. See further de Sadeleer, note 102 at 98-99.
157. Maastricht Treaty 1992 31 ILM 247 (1992) Article 130r(2).
158. Treaty of Amsterdam 1997 37 ILM 56 (1998) Article 174(2).
159. See section "The Twelve principles" 3.3.2 above.
160. See section "Draft Declaration on Guiding Principles for Sustainable Development" 3.3.3 above.
161. Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment, note 40, Section 3.5.1.
162. Environment Protection and Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) Section 3.
163. Ibid, Section 3A(b).
164. A list of the legislation, as at 1999, which expressly include the principles of ecologically sustainable development can be found in P. Stein and S. Mahony "Incorporating Sustainability Principles in Legislation" in P. Leadbeater, N. Gunningham and B. Boer (eds) Environmental Outlook No 3: Law and Policy (Federation Press: 1999) 73-74.
165. As at 2004, see the discussinn in BGP Properties Pty Ltd v Lake Macquarie City Council (2004) 138 LGERA 237 at 253-254.
166. Stein and Mahony, note 131 AT 62-63.
167. For examples of where the precautionary principle has been held to be a relevant consideration in environmental decision-making, see BGP Properties Pty Ltd v Lake Macquarie City Council (2004) 138 LGERA 237 at 262[113]
168. and BT Goldsmith Planning Services Pty Limited v Blacktown City Council (2005] NSWLEC 210 at [56]-[57].
169. T. O'Riordan and J. Cameron "The History and Contemporary Significance of the Precautionary Principle" in T. O'Riordan and J. Cameron (eds), note 102 at 12, 17-18.
170. World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology The Precautionary Principle (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Paris: 2005)
171. Ibid, 31.
172. For a further discussion of these principles, see Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission on the Precautionary Principle, 2 February 2000 (5 January 2006).
173. The European ECO-Forum is a network of more than 200 environmental NGOs who share a common interest in the Pan-European cooperation for a better environment. See European ECO-Forum Implementing Rio Principles in Europe: Participation and Precaution (October 2001) (6 January 2006) 10.
174. Joe Castrilli "Appendix B: Legal Analysis of the Precautionary Principle" in K.B. Ogilvie, Applying the Precautionary Principle to Standard Setting for Toxic Substances in Canada September 2001 (6 January 2006) 99-132, esp 107-108.
175. Castrilli, note 138 at 107.
176. For a discussion of the requirements of environmental impact assessment in New South Wales, Australia, and the United Kingdom, and the legal consequences of failure to adequately undertake environmental impact assessment, see Prineas v Forestry Commission of NSW (1983) 49 LGRA 402 at 417
177. Warren v Electricity Commission of NSW (1990) 130 LGERA 565 at 569-571
178. Schaffer Corporation Ltd v Hawkesbury City Council (1992) 77 LGRA 21 at 30-31
179. Byron Shire Business for the Future Inc v Byron Council and Holiday Villages (Byron Bay) Pty Ltd (1994) 84 LGERA 434
180. Timbarra Protection Coalition Inc v Ross Mining NL (1999) 46 NSWLR 55
181. Berkeley v Secretary of State for the Environment [2001] 2 AC 603 at 615
182. Hereford Waste Watchers Ltd v Hereford District Council [2005] JPL 1469 at 1475-1481
183. B. J. Preston, "Adequacy of Environmental Impact Statements in New South Wales" (1986) 3 EPLJ 194
184. and B. J. Preston, "The Environmental Impact Statement Threshold Test: When is an Activity Likely to Significantly Affect the Environment" (1990) 7 EPLJ 147.
185. See for example, Scurr v Brisbane CC (1973) 133 CLR 242
186. Curac v Shoalhaven CC (1993) 81 LGERA 124
187. Helman v Byron SC (1995) 87 LGERA 349
188. and John Brown Lenton & Co Pty Ltd v Minister for Urban Affairs & Planning (1999) 106 LGERA 150.
189. See for example, Mosman Municipal Council v Menai Excavations Pty Limited (2002) 122 LGERA 89 at 97[35]
190. Sutherland Shire Council v Turner [2004] NSWLEC 774 (18 June 2004) at [24]
191. and Byron Shire Council v Fletcher [2005] NSWLEC 706 (25 November 2005).
192. For further discussion of the reverse burden of proof, see D. Farrier, "Factoring Biodiversity Conservation into Decision-making Processes: The Role of the Precautionary Principle" in R. Harding and E. Fisher (eds) Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Federation Press: 1999). 99
193. Cameron and Abouchar, note 102 at 22
194. B. J. Preston Environmental Litigation (Law Book Co: 1989) 287-289
195. Cordonier Segger and Khalfan, note 32 at 150
196. O'Riordan and Cameron in O'Riordan and Cameron (eds), note 32 at 12
197. B. A. Weintraub, "Science, International Environmental Regulation, and the Precautionary Principle: Setting Standards and Defining Terms" (1992) 1 NYU Environmental Law Journal 204-207.
198. B. J. Preston Environmental Litigation (Law Book Co: 1989) 288.
199. Castrilli, note 138 at 108.
200. For a discussion of public participation in the context of the precautionary principle, see N. Pain "Third Party Rights: Public Participation Under the Act 1979 (NSW)" (1989) EPLJ 26
201. J. Taberner, N. Brunton and L. Mather "Development of Public Participation in Environmental Protection and Planning Law" (1996) 13 EPLJ 260
202. and J. McDonald "Mechanisms for Public Participation in Environmental Policy Development" (1999) 16 EPLJ 258.
203. (1993) 81 LGERA 270.
204. Ibid, at 281.
205. Ibid, at 282.
206. Ibid, at 282.
207. Ibid, at 282-283.
208. Ibid, at 284.
209. Ibid, at 286-287.
210. (1994) 84 LGERA 397.
211. Ibid, at 410.
212. Ibid, at 419.
213. (1993) 81 LGERA 270.
214. Note 152 at 418.
215. Ibid, at 419.
216. Ibid, at 419.
217. Ibid, at 419.
218. Subsequently, there have been numerous enactments which incorporate the precautionary principle; see BGP Properties Pty Ltd v Lake Macquarie City Council (2004) 138 LGERA 237 at 253-254[87].
219. Note 152 at 419.
220. Ibid, at 421.
221. (1994) 86 LGERA 143.
222. Ibid, at 145, 148-149.
223. Ibid, at 150.
224. Ibid, at 150.
225. Ibid, at 154.
226. Ibid, at 155.
227. Ibid, at 156, 162.
228. Sir Anthony Mason "The Influence of International and Transnational Law on Australian Municipal Law" (1996) 7 Public Law Review 27-28
229. B. Boer, note 44
230. and D. Rothwell and B. Boer "From Franklin to Berlin: The Internationalisation of Australian Environmental Law and Policy" (1995) 17 Sydney Law Review 242.
231. (1996) 130 LGERA 248.
232. Ibid, at 264-265.
233. [1996] NSWLEC 102 (29 March 1996).
234. Note 152 at 419.
235. Note 172 at 15-16 of judgment.
236. (1997) 93 LGERA 249.
237. See Minister for Aboriginal Affairs v Peko Wallsend Ltd (1986) 162 CLR 39-40.
238. Note 175 at 295.
239. (1993) 81 LGERA 270.
240. Leatch v National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) 81 LGERA 270 at 282.
241. Note 177 at 296.
242. Note 177 at 297.
243. (1999) 111 LGERA 1.
244. Ibid, at 25.
245. [1999] SAERDC 86 (16 December 1999).
246. Ibid, at [18] and [20].
247. Ibid, at [21].
248. See G. Handl "Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law" 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990)
249. W. Gullett "Environmental Protection and the 'Precautionary Principle': A Response to Scientific Uncertainty in Environmental Management" (1997) 14 EPLJ 52
250. O. Macintyre and T. Mosedale "The Precautionary Principle as a Norm of Customary International Law" 9 Journal of Environmental Law 221 (1998)
251. and C. Barton "The Precautionary Principle in Australia: Its Emergence in Legislation and as a Common Law Doctrine" 22 Harvard Environmental Law Review 509 (1998).
252. Note 184 at [21].
253. Ibid, [22].
254. Ibid, [24] and [25].
255. (2000) 110 LGERA 1.
256. Ibid, 9[42].
257. Ibid, 10 [48] per Doyle CJ with whom Duggan and Lander JJ agreed.
258. Ibid, 6[27]-7[30] per Doyle CJ with whom Duggan and Lander JJ agreed.
259. [2004] NSWLEC 104 (26 March 2004).
260. Ibid, [26].
261. Ibid, [25], [26].
262. See now s. 4(1) of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NSW)
263. Note 194 at [27].
264. Ibid, [35].
265. (2004) 138 LGERA 237.
266. Ibid, 252[82].
267. Ibid, 252[84].
268. Ibid, 252[85]-256[97].
269. Note 182 at 25.
270. Note 200 at 256[100]-257[101].
271. Note 145.
272. Note 162.
273. Note 152.
274. [2004] NSWLEC 122 (7 April 2004).
275. Ibid, [178].
276. Note 200 at 262 [113]-[114].
277. Ibid, 271[150], 272[160], 278[202]-[203] and 280[220].
278. [2005] NSWLEC 210(1 July 2005).
279. Ibid, [72].
280. Ibid, [73].
281. [2005] NSWLEC 426 (15 August 2005).
282. Ibid, [32].
283. Ibid, [54]-[58].
284. Council [2006] NSWLEC 52 (17 February 2006).
285. [2006] NSWLEC 52 (17 February 2006).
286. [2005] NSWLEC 210 (1 July 2005).
287. Note 220 at [80].
288. [2006] NSWLEC 85 (27 February 2006).
289. S. 78A(8)(b) of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NSW).
290. [2006] NSWLEC 85 (27 February 2006), [7].
291. Ibid, [56], [61].
292. Ibid, [69].
293. See also the similar later decision of Talbot J in Gales Holdings Pty Ltd v. Tweed Shire Council [2006] NSWLEC 212 (28 April 2006), [46].
294. [2006] NSWLEC 133 (24 March 2006).
295. Ibid, [128].
296. Ibid, [129].
297. Ibid, [129].
298. Ibid, [138], [139].
299. Ibid, [140].
300. Ibid, [146].
301. Ibid, [147].
302. Ibid, [148].
303. Ibid, [129].
304. Ibid, [150].
305. Ibid, [156].
306. Ibid, [158].
307. Ibid, [157], [159].
308. Ibid, [161].
309. Ibid, [162].
310. Ibid, [163].
311. Ibid, [166], [167].
312. Ibid, [169].
313. Ibid, [170], [171].
314. Ibid, [172]-[178].
315. Ibid, [179], [180].
316. Ibid, [182].
317. PLD 1994 SC 693.
318. Ibid, [8].
319. Ibid, [9].
320. Ibid. [10].
321. AIR 1996 SC 2715.
322. Ibid, 2720[8].
323. Ibid, 2720[10].
324. Ibid, 2720[10].
325. Ibid, 2720[11]-2721.
326. Ibid, 2721[13]-2722.
327. (1997) 1 SCC 388.
328. Note 254.
329. Note 260 at [37].
330. AIR 1999 SC 812.
331. Ibid, 818[23] and 820[30].
332. Note 255.
333. Note 264 at 820[32].
334. Ibid, 821[34].
335. Ibid, 821[34].
336. Ibid, 821[35].
337. Ibid, at 821[37]-[39].
338. AIR 2000 SC 3751.
339. Ibid, 3769[14] and 3787[92]-[93].
340. Ibid, 3787[92].
341. Ibid, 3795[119], 3804[153]-[154].
342. Ibid, 3770[20].
343. Ibid, 3803[147].
344. Ibid, 3803[150]-3804.
345. ILR 2005 (3) Kerala 258.
346. Note 255.
347. Note 279 at [10].
348. Ibid, [12].
349. M. D. Young "The Precautionary Principles as a Key Element of Ecologically Sustainable Development" in R. Harding and E. Fisher Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Federation Press: 1999) 127.
350. E. Brown Weiss In Fairness to Future Generation (UN University Press: 1989) 26-27.
351. E. Brown Weiss "Intergenerational Equity: A Legal Framework for Global Environmental Change" in E. Brown Weiss (ed) Environmental Change and International Law: New Challenges and Dimensions (UN University Press: 1992) 397.
352. Ibid, 385.
353. Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, G.A Res. 3281, 1975, Article 50.
354. D. A. Wirth "The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Two Steps Forward and One Back, or Vice Versa?" (1995) 29 Georgia Law Review 628-629.
355. E. Brown Weiss, note 285 at 401.
356. Ibid, 402-404.
357. Ibid, 404-405.
358. Ibid, 405.
359. M. D. Young, note 283 at 139.
360. Ibid 139-140.
361. Ibid, 140-141.
362. Ibid, 141-143.
363. Ibid, 143.
364. Ibid, 143.
365. Ibid, 144.
366. Ibid, 145-146.
367. Ibid, 146.
368. Ibid, 147.
369. Ibid, 147.
370. Ibid, 147-148.
371. Ibid, 148.
372. Ibid, 148.
373. Ibid, 149.
374. 33 ILM 173 (1994).
375. Ibid, at 185 per Davide J.
376. Ibid, 186 and 187.
377. Section 16, Article II of the 1987 Constitution.
378. See 33 ILM 173 (1994) 187.
379. Note 308 at 188.
380. Ibid, 191.
381. AIR 1996 SC 149.
382. Ibid, 152[10].
383. Ibid, 158[36].
384. Ibid, 158[37]-159[38].
385. Ibid, 159[39].
386. Ibid, 159[40].
387. Ibid, 159[42].
388. Ibid, 163[51]-164.
389. AIR 1980 SC 1622.
390. Ibid, 1629[15]-[16].
391. AIR 1988 SC 2187.
392. Ibid, 2189[1].
393. Ibid, 2189[1].
394. Ibid, 2189[3]-2190[4].
395. Ibid, 2191[6]-2193[7].
396. Ibid, 2193[12]-[13].
397. Ibid, 2193[14]-2194.
398. Ibid, 2196[22]-2197.
399. Ibid, 2195[18].
400. Ibid, 2196[21].
401. Ibid, 2197[23].
402. Ibid, 2197[24]-2198[26].
403. Ibid, 2198[27]-2199[30].
404. Ibid, 2199[31]-2200[35].
405. Ibid, 2206[46].
406. Ibid, 2209[57].
407. See generally on the role of the precautionary principle in the conservation of biological diversity, R. Cooney and B. Dickson (eds) Biodiversity and the Precautionary Principle. Risk and Uncertainty in Conservation and Sustainable Use (Earthscan: 2005).
408. These aspects are discussed in Moffet and Bregha, note 79 at 5.
409. Ibid, 4.
410. IUCN, UNEP, WWF Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living (Oxford University Press: 1992) 9, as quoted in Moffet and Bregha, note 79 at 4.
411. J. Moffett and F. Bregha, note 79 at 4.
412. "Principles" in National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity
413. National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (NSW) Section 2A.
414. Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) Section 3.
415. Ibid, Section 4(1).
416. Ibid, Section 140.
417. NSW Biodiversity Strategy at 3
418. Note 4 at Chapter 15 para 15.1.
419. Convention on Biological Diversity 31 ILM 818 (1992).
420. Ibid, Article 6.
421. Ibid, Article 10.
422. IUCN, UNEP, WWF, note 343.
423. Ibid.
424. See also WRI, IUCN, UNEP Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainability and Equitably (1992) 21.
425. (1991) 73 LGRA 126.
426. Ibid, 139-140.
427. Ibid, 161.
428. Forestry Commission of New South Wales v Corkill (1991) 73 LGRA 247.
429. (1993) 81 LGERA 270.
430. Ibid, 282-283.
431. (2001) 117 LGERA 168.
432. G Richards "The Spectacled Flying-fox, Pteropus conspicillatus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae), in north Queensland" (1990) 13 Australian Mammalogy 25.
433. Note 363 at 194[103].
434. (2004) 138 LGERA 237.
435. Ibid, 262.
436. Note 221.
437. Note 366.
438. Note 221 at [57].
439. Ibid, [57].
440. Ibid, [88].
441. Ibid, [92].
442. J. Moffet and F. Bregha, note 79 at 7.
443. See Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment, 1992 Section 3.5.4.
444. M.D. Young, note 283 at 148.
445. MC. Cordonier Segger and A. Khalfan, note 32 at 82-83.
446. Bates, note 77 at138[5.41].
447. See J. Agius "Biodiversity Credits: Creating Missing Markets for Biodiversity" (2001) 18 EPLJ 481
448. M. Jenkins, S. J. Scherr and M. Inbar Markets for Biodiversity Services: Potential Roles and Challenges (Aspen Institute, 23 November 2005)
449. and NSW Department of Environment and Conservation Biodiversity Conservation and Banking in Coastal and Growth Areas July 2005 (6 January 2006).
450. N. de Sadeleer, note 102 at 21.
451. J. Moffett and F. Bregha, n79 at 8.
452. Guiding Principles Concerning the International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies, OECD Recommendations C(72)128 reprinted in 14 ILM 236 (1975).
453. See also P. W. Birnie and A. E. Boyle, note 18 at 109-110
454. and P. Sands, note 6 at 282.
455. P W Birnie and A E Boyle, note 28 at 110.
456. Declaration on an Environmental Action Programme, 20 December 1973.
457. European Community Council, "Cost Allocation and Action by Public Authorities on Environmental Matters", Recommendation 75/436/ EURATOM, ECSC, EEC of 3 March 1975, para 2 of Annexure.
458. As quoted in P. W. Birnie and E. Boyle, note 28 at 110.
459. European Economic Area Agreement: Article 73(2)
460. as discussed in P. Sands, note 6 at 283.
461. Ibid, 280-281.
462. AIR 1996 SC 1446.
463. Ibid, 1466[67].
464. Note 255. The facts have been stated earlier in the discussion of this case on the precautionary principle above.
465. Note 389.
466. Note 255 at 2721[12]-[13].
467. WP 3727/1985 (19 December 1996) (known as the Calcutta Tanneries case).
468. Note 389.
469. Note 255.
470. Note 394 at [19].
471. Ibid, [20].
472. WP 13381/1984 (30 December 1996)
473. AIR 1997 SC 734 (known as the Taj Trapezium case).
474. Note 389.
475. Note 255.
476. WP 657/1995 (5 January 2005).
477. Ibid, [24]-[25], [27]-[28] and [31]-[34].
478. (1993) 113 LGERA 357.
479. Ibid, 359-360.
480. [2005] NSWLEC 695 (22 November 2005).
481. Note 404.
482. Note 406 at [99].
483. (2006) 145 LGERA 234
484. [2006] NSWLEC 34 (6 February 2006)
485. Note 404.
486. Note 409, 257 [156]-258 [157].
487. W. H. Rodgers "Bringing People Back: Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Taking in Natural Resource Law" (1982) 10 Ecology Law Quarterly 239-240.
488. See J. L. Sax "The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention" (1970) 68 Michigan Law Review 471
489. and Rodgers, note 411.
490. Lord Advocate v Clyde Navigation Trustees (1891) 19 Rettie 174.
491. lbid, at 183.
492. T. Bonyhady "A Usable Past: The Public Trust in Australia" (1995) 12 EPLJ 329 at 334
493. quoting Sir Julian Salomons QC Sydney Morning Herald 9 June 1891 at 4.
494. T. Bonyhady, note 415
495. quoting A. B. Piddington Daily Telegraph, 17 November 1893 at 3.
496. Re Sydney Harbour Collieries Co (1895) 5 Land Appeal Court Reports 259.
497. See J. L. Sax "The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention" (1970) 68 Michigan Law Review 471
498. and Rodgers, note 411.
499. Lord Advocate v Clyde Navigation Trustees (1891) 19 Rettie 174.
500. Ibid, at 183.
501. T. Bonyhady "A Usable Past: The Public Trust in Australia" (1995) 12 EPLJ 329 at 334
502. quoting Sir Julian Salomons QC Sydney Morning Herald 9 June 1891 at 4.
503. T. Bonyhady, note 415
504. quoting A. B. Piddington Daily Telegraph, 17 November 1893 at 3.
505. Re Sydney Harbour Collieries Co (1895) 5 Land Appeal Court Reports 259.
506. See J. L. Sax, note 412
507. J. L. Sax Defending the Environment: A Handbook for Citizen Action (Vintage Books: 1971).
508. J L Sax, note 412.
509. Ibid, 477.
510. Ibid, 474.
511. (1983) 658 P 2d 709.
512. Ibid, 711.
513. Ibid, 712.
514. Ibid, 712.
515. (1992) 78 LGRA 19.
516. Ibid, 34-36.
517. Ibid, at 34.
518. For a discussion of this case, see T. Bonyhady, note 415 at 330-331.
519. (1997) 1 SCC 388.
520. Ibid, [23].
521. Ibid, [34].
522. Ibid, [39].
523. Ibid, [39].
524. CDJ 2005 SC 713.
525. (1997) 1 SCC 388.
526. Note 434 at [70].
527. PLD 1994 SC 102.
528. Ibid, 102.
529. Ibid, 102-103.
530. PLD 1994 SC 102 at 103.
531. 1994 SCMR 2061.
532. Ibid, 2068.
533. PLD 1994 SC 693.
534. Note 442 at 2069.
535. Ibid, 2072.
536. Application No. 884/99, Supreme Court of Sri Lanka 243 (7 April 2000).
537. Ibid, 243.
538. Ibid, 245.
539. Ibid, 244, 257-260.
540. Note 447 at 253.
541. Ibid, 320-321.
542. J. van der Walt, "The Best She Can" (Nov 2005-Jan 2006) 53 Msafiri 65.
543. The translation of this phrase differs. Its probable source is from V. Hugo "Conclusion-La Chute" in Hiswire d'un Crime
544. as quoted in a Nobel Lecture by Dr M. L. King "The Quest for Peace and Justice" (6 January 2006).