What's new about the new French fiscal history?

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 70, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 639-667

  Bonney, Richard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 33750239382     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/235120     Document Type: Review

References (200)

1. Philip T. Hoffman and Kathryn Norberg, eds., "Introduction," Fiscal Crises, Liberty, and Representative Government, 1450-1789 (Stanford, Calif.: 1994), p. 2;
2. James D. Tracy, "Taxation and State Debt," in Structures and Assertions, vol. 1, of Handbook of European History, 1400-1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, ed. T. A. Brady, Jr., H. A. Oberman, and J. D. Tracy (Leiden, New York, Cologne, 1994), p. 563.
3. Jean-Philippe Genet, "Which State Rises?" Historical Research 65 (1992): 119-33;
4. and Genet, ed., L'État moderne: Genèse, bilans, perspectives (Paris, 1990), pp. 261-81.
5. Frédéric Braesch, Finances et monnaie révolutionnaires, vol. 2, Les recettes et les dépenses du Trésor pendant l'année 1789: Le compte rendu au Roi, de mars 1788: Le dernier budget de l'ancien régime (Paris, 1936).
6. François Crouzet, La grande inflation: La monnaie en France de Louis XVI à Napoléon (Paris, 1993), pp. 61, 88.
7. e siècle," Revue historique 264 (1980): 289-336.
8. Herbert Lüthy, La banque protestante en France de l'édit de Nantes à la Révolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1959-61).
9. Roland Mousnier, La vénalité des offices sous Henri IV et Louis XIII, 2d ed. (Paris, 1971), pp. 420-27, "offices as aproportion of revenues and expenses."
10. Roland Mousnier, La plume, la faucille et le marteau: Institutions et société en France du moyen âge à la Révolution (Paris, 1970).
11. e siècles: La grande mutation intellectuelle de l'humanité, l'avènement de la science moderne et l'expansion de l'Europe (1953; Paris, 1993).
12. John F. Bosher, French Finances, 1770-1795: From Business to Bureaucracy (Cambridge, 1970),
13. and "Chambres de Justice in the French Monarchy," in French Government and Society, 1500-1850: Essays in Memory of Alfred Cobban, ed. John F. Bosher (London, 1973), pp. 19-40.
14. Reprinted in the author's volume of collected essays, Business and Religion in the Age of New France, 1600-1760: Twenty-Two Studies (Toronto, 1994), pp. 56-76.
15. Julian Dent, Crisis in Finance: Crown, Financiers, and Society in Seventeenth-Century France (Newton Abbot, 1973),
16. "An Aspect of the Crisis of the Seventeenth Century: The Collapse of the Financial Administration of the French Monarchy, 1653-1661," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 20 (1967): 241-56,
17. and "The Role of Clientèles in the Financial Elite of France under Cardinal Mazarin," in French Government and Society, ed. Bosher, pp. 41-69.
18. Richard Bonney, The King's Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589-1661 (Oxford, 1981);
19. Daniel Dessert, Argent, pouvoir et société au grand siècle (Paris, 1984);
20. e siècle (Paris, 1988).
21. Edgar Faure, La disgrâce de Turgot: 12 mai 1776 (Paris, 1961),
22. and 17 juillet 1720: La banqueroute de Law (Paris, 1977).
23. Guy Chaussinand Nogaret, Les financiers de Languedoc (Paris, 1970),
24. e siècles (Rome, 1980), pp. 191-206.
25. The author is more famous for his The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century: From Feudalism to Enlightenment, trans. William Doyle (Cambridge, 1985).
26. Jean Meyer, Le poids de l'état (Paris, 1983).
27. The Meyer festschrift contains essays by Richard Bonney and Timothy J. A. Le Goff on this theme. See Bonney, "La concurrence étatique pour les ressources et l'innovation fiscale sous Louis XIV," in État, marine et société: Hommage à Jean Meyer, ed. M. Acerra, J.-P. Poussou, M. Vergé-Franceschi, and A. Zysberg (Paris, 1995), pp. 35-47;
28. and Le Goff, "Essai sur les pensions royales," in État, marine et société: Hommage à Jean Meyer, ibid., pp. 251-81.
29. The background to this is discussed in Richard Bonney, "Precursors of the Modern State," French History 3 (1989): 466-78;
30. and see Jean-Philippe Genet and Michel Le Mené, eds., Genèse de l'état moderne: Prélèvement et redistribution (Paris, 1987).
31. Richard Bonney, ed., Economic Systems and State Finance (Oxford, 1995),
32. published in French as Systèmes économiques et finances publiques (Paris, 1996).
33. The other volumes in the series are: Philippe Contamine, ed., War and Competition between States (in press);
34. Antonio Padoa-Schippa, ed., Legislation and Justice (Oxford, 1997);
35. Wolfgang Reinhard, ed., Power Elites and State Building (Oxford, 1996);
36. Peter Blickle, ed., Resistance, Representation, and Community (Oxford, 1997);
37. Janet Coleman, ed., The Individual in Political Theory and Practice (Oxford, 1996);
38. Allan Ellenius, ed., Iconography, Propaganda, and Legitimation (in press).
39. See Michel Bruguière, "Une Renaissance scientifique: L'histoire financière," Histoire économique et financière de la France: Études et documents 1 (1989): 1-9,
40. e siècles (Paris, 1991).
41. The graph of publications ("l'historiographie de la fiscalité de l'Ancien Régime") in Mireille Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu: La taille tarifée, 1715-1789 (Paris, 1994), p. 383, gives a fair representation of the rise in the number of publications in the period 1960-89, compared to the preceding twenty-five years; though the record was for the period 1900-29, no doubt a consequence of the publications of
42. Marcel Marion. And see Histoire économique et financière de la France: Études et documents (1989-);
43. Joël Félix, Économie et finances sous l'ancien régime: Guide du chercheur, 1523-1789 (Paris, 1994);
44. and Margaret Bonney and Richard Bonney, Jean-Roland Malet: Premier historien des finances de la monarchie française (Paris, 1993).
45. Richard Bonney, "France, 1494-1815," in The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe, c. 1200-c. 1815, ed. Bonney (Oxford, in press).
46. er (Paris, 1994), p. 128;
47. David Potter, War and Government, p. 235.
48. Hamon, p. 129.
49. Daniel Dessert, Fouquet (Paris, 1987),
50. and 1661: La mémoire des siècles. Louis XIV prend le pouvoir. Naissance d'un mythe? (Brussels, 1989).
51. Richard Bonney, "The Fouquet-Colbert Rivalry and the 'Revolution' of 1661," in Ethics and Politics in Seventeenth-Century France, ed. K. Cameron and E. Woodrough (Exeter, 1996), pp. 107-18.
52. Hamon, pp. 351, 401.
53. Potter, War and Government, p. 301.
54. Mark Greengrass, "Pieces of the Jigsaw: Making Sense of French Taxation under the Last Valois, 1574-1589," in Crises, Revolutions, and Self-Sustained Growth: Essays in European Fiscal History, 1130-1830, ed. W. M. Ormrod, Margaret Bonney, and Richard Bonney (Stamford, 1998).
55. S. Amanda Eurich, The Economics of Power, p. 195: "Tracing military expenditures during the Wars of Religion is not an easy task because the Albrets disbursed funds for the war effort from several different accounts. . . . Unfortunately, very few of the . . . extraordinary accounts have survived the ravages of war."
56. Isabelle Aristide, La fortune de Sully, pp. 91-92.
57. Isabelle Aristide, La fortune de Sully, Ibid., pp. 93-94.
58. e Siècle 60 (1963): 11-39;
59. Roland Mousnier, ed., Lettres et mémoires adressés au Chancelier Séguier, 1633-1649, 2 vols. (Paris, 1964), 1:34.
60. Dessert, Fouquet, p. 343.
61. Hilton L. Root, La construction de l'état moderne en Europe: La France et L'Angleterre (Paris, 1994), p. 284.
62. Jean Villain, La fortune de Colbert, pp. 322, 334, 336, corrects all earlier interpretations, and provides various estimates of 4.95, 5.8, and 5.75 million.
63. Jean Villain, La fortune de Colbert, Ibid., p. 322;
64. A. Corvisier, Louvois (Paris, 1983), pp. 502-3: "On peut donc penser que les biens de Louvois sont de l'ordre de 9 millions de livres" (we may thus conclude that the fortune of Louvois was in the region of 9 million livres).
65. e siècle: La fortune de Mazarin," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 23 (1976): 161-81.
66. Joseph A. Bergin, Cardinal Richelieu: Power and the Pursuit of Wealth (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1985).
67. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), p. 52.
68. For his high-spending reputation, see Munro Price, Preserving the Monarchy: The Comte de Vergennes, 1774-1787 (Cambridge, 1995), p. 150.
69. Price, p. 236.
70. er aout 1786," Archives Vergennes at Marly-le-Roi. I am grateful to Munro Price for permission to quote this figure.
71. Root, La construction de l'état moderne, p. 285.
72. Bonney, The King's Debts; Crouzet, La grande inflation, p. 72;
73. James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France, pp. 233-34, 240.
74. Collins expresses this succinctly: "Each war cycle ended in bankruptcy: 1602, 1634, 1648, 1721, and 1789. In the long run this fundamental flaw in the structure of the French monarchy led to its collapse" (James B. Collins, Fiscal Limits of Absolutism: Direct Taxation in Early Seventeenth-Century France [Berkeley, Calif.: 1988], p. 17).
75. Philip T. Hoffman, Gilles Postel-Vinay, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, "Redistribution and Long-term Private Debt in Paris, 1660-1726," Journal of Economic History 55 (1995): 256-84, at 270, 273, 278.
76. See also their earlier article, "Private Credit Markets in Paris, 1690-1840," Journal of Economic History 52 (1992): 293-306.
77. F. R. Velde and Donald R. Weir, "The Financial Market and Government Debt Policy in France, 1746-1793," Journal of Economic History 52 (1992): 1-39.
78. Donald R. Weir, "Tontines, Public Finance, and Revolution in France and England, 1688-1789," Journal of Economic History 49 (1989): 95-124, at 97-100.
79. The title of a seminal article by Eugene N. White, "Was There a Solution to the Ancien Régime's Financial Dilemma?" Journal of Economic History 49 (1989): 545-68
80. (French version: "Y avait-il une solution au dilemme financier de l'Ancien Régime?" Histoire économique et financière de la France: Études et documents 4 [1992]: 61-88).
81. This article postulated that it was the abandonment of "earlier reforms and successful budget policies" by "reactionary finance ministers" in the mid-1780s that led to the crisis. His subtitles for the penultimate sections of the article are "Return of the Old Guard, 1781-1788" and "Too Late for Reform." Other contributions by White include "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770-1815," Journal of Economic History 55 (1995): 227-55;
82. Michael D. Bordo and Eugene N. White, "A Tale of Two Currencies: British and French Finance during the Napoleonic War," Journal of Economic History 51 (1991): 303-16.
83. The last contribution is reproduced in modified form by Bordo and White as "British and French Finance during the Napoleonic Wars," in Monetary Regimes in Transition, ed. Michael D. Bordo and Forrest Capie (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 241-73.
84. Dessert, Fouquet, p. 258.
85. Collins, The State in Early Modern France, p. 167: "The capitation takes us into an entirely new state structure, one in which all inhabitants must pay taxes."
86. Richard Bonney, "Le secret de leurs familles: The Fiscal and Social Limits of Louis XIV's dixième," French History 7 (1993): 383-416,
87. repr. in Bonney, The Limits of Absolutism in Ancien Régime France (Aldershot, 1995).
88. New research on the capitation and the vingtièmes in the eighteenth century is presented in Michael Kwass, "A Kingdom of Taxpayers: State Formation, Privilege, and Political Culture in Eighteenth-Century France," Journal of Modern History 70 (1998): 295-339.
89. Peter M. Jones, Reform and Revolution in France, p. 127.
90. Particularly crushing with regard to Silhouette: see James C. Riley, The Seven Years' War and the Old Regime in France: The Economic and Financial Toll (Princeton, N.J., 1986), pp. 153, 158-59.
91. J. J. McLain, The Economic Writings of Du Pont de Nemours (Newark, Del., 1977), pp. 44-45. Du Pont was dismissed by Brienne.
92. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), pp. 127, 468.
93. Root, La construction de l'état moderne (n. 30 above), p. 290.
94. Bonney, ed., Economic Systems and State Finance (n. 14 above), pp. 431-38.
95. Antoin E. Murphy, ed., John Law's "Essay on a Land Bank" (Dublin, 1994), p. 21.
96. C.-F. Lévy, Capitalistes ei pouvoir au siècle des lumières, 3 vols. (The Hague, 1969-80), 2:155, n. 108.
97. Thomas E. Kaiser, "Money, Despotism, and Public Opinion in Early Eighteenth-Century France: John Law and the Debate on Royal Credit," Journal of Modern History 63 (1991): 1-28;
98. Antoin E. Murphy, "John Law's Proposal for a Bank of Turin (1712)" Économies et sociétés, série oeconomia 15 (1991): 3-29, at p. 24.
99. John Law, Oeuvres complètes, ed. P. Harsin, 3 vols. (Paris, 1934; repr. 1980), 2:48; Bonney and Bonney (n. 16 above), pp. 85-86.
100. Hoffman and Norberg (n. 1 above), pp. 306, 310.
101. Price, Preserving the Monarchy, pp. 50, 56-57, 235. In the case of the issuing of life rents, it does seem that the markets were more sophisticated than the government and its advisers:
102. Crouzet, La grande inflation, pp. 68-70.
103. Price (n. 34 above), p. 90.
104. James C. Riley, International Government Finance and the Amsterdam Capital Market, 1740-1815 (Cambridge, 1980), p. 185;
105. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), p. 76.
106. Crouzet, pp. 37-42, 538. Crouzet specifically denies the argument that the absence of banknotes in circulation hindered French economic growth (p. 47). The continuity between the Discount Bank and the Banque de France tends to undermine Kindleberger's argument; see C. P. Kindleberger, A Financial History of Western Europe (London, 1984),
107. and "Financial Institutions and Economic Development: A Comparison of Great Britain and France in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Explorations in Economic History 21 (1984): 103-24.
108. Price, pp. 94-104; Crouzet, La grande inflation, p. 40.
109. William Doyle, Venality: The Sale of Offices in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford, 1996), p. 8.
110. Richard Bonney, "The State and Its Revenues in Ancien Régime France," Historical Research 65 (1992): 150-76, at p. 152;
111. repr. in Bonney, The Limits of Absolutism (n. 45 above).
112. Maurice Gresset, L'introduction de la vénalité des offices en Franche Comté, 1692-1704 (Besançon, 1989);
113. Philippe Rosset, Les officiers du bureau des finances de Lille, 1691-1790 (Geneva and Paris, 1991).
114. Ooyle, Venality, p. 157.
115. Ooyle, Venality, Ibid., pp. 168-71, 205-7, 265-66.
116. Bonney, "The State and Its Revenues," p. 172.
117. Doyle, Venality, pp. 136-37, 139.
118. Doyle's figure (Venality, p. 143, n. 165),
119. compared with the list tabulated by Robert D. Harris, Necker: Reform Statesman of the Ancien Régime (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 134-36.
120. For the figures in the American War, see Harris, "French Finances and the American War, 1777-1783," Journal of Modern History 48 (1976): 233-58, at pp. 240-42.
121. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), p. 66, estimates the percentage of new expenditure caused by the war which was covered by loan income as 91 percent.
122. Doyle, Venality, p. 142.
123. Doyle, Venality, Ibid., pp. 131-32, 139, 145, 150.
124. Doyle, Venality, Ibid., p. 270.
125. Crouzet, La grande inflation, p. 561.
126. Doyle, Venality (n. 62 above), pp. 310, 309.
127. Crouzet, La grande inflation;
128. Christian Aubin, "Les assignats sous la Révolution française: un exemple "d'hyperinflation," Revue économique 42 (1991): 745-46;
129. Eugene N. White, "Measuring the French Revolution's Inflation: The Tableaux de dépréciation" Histoire et Mesure 6 (1991): 245-74;
130. Elise S. Brezis and François H. Crouzet, "The Role of assignats during the French Revolution: An Evil or a Rescuer?" Journal of European Economic History 24 (1995): 7-40 (hereafter cited as "The Role of assignats").
131. Antoin E. Murphy, "John Law and the assignats," in La pensée économique pendant la Révolution française, ed. G. Faccarello and P. Steiner (Grenoble, 1990), pp. 431-48.
132. Murphy, ed., John Law's "Essay on a Land Bank" (n. 52 above), pp. 63-64, 49, 89.
133. e siècles (Paris, 1991), pp. 9
134. (preface by Pierre Goubert), 146, 183, 540-45. By the eighteenth century, the average contribution of the clergy was 3.5 million livres per annum. See also Michaud, "La participation du clergé de France aux dépenses de la monarchie à la fin de l'Ancien Régime," in État, finances et économie pendant la Révolution française: Colloque tenu àBercy les 12, 13, 14 octobre 1989 à l'occasion du Bicentenaire de la Révolution française (Comité pour l'histoire économique et financière de la France: Paris, 1991), pp. 3-10.
135. Crouzet, la grande inflation (n. 3 above), pp. 103, 107, 209, 464-65. Crouzet comments (p. 115) that unlike Law's System, the assignat was "gagé sur la terre": but Crouzet published this a year before Law's scheme for the land bank was published by Murphy in 1994. It is true that Law had further refined his ideas by the time that the System was established in France: the value of shares in the System had not been linked to the value of land.
136. Brezis and Crouzet, "The Role of assignats," pp. 11-12.
137. Crouzet, La grande inflation, pp. 213, 231, 328, 412-13, 419; so called because they carried a "mortgage, privilege and special delegation on all the national lands."
138. White, "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance," pp. 238-41.
139. White, "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance," Ibid., p. 240.
140. Timothy J. A. Le Goff and Donald M. G. Sutherland, "The Revolution and the Rural Economy," in Reshaping France: Town, Country, and Region during the French Revolution, ed. Alan Forrest and Peter M. Jones (Manchester, 1991), pp. 52-85, at p. 69.
141. Crouzet, La grande inflation, pp. 562, 96, 120-23.
142. Crouzet, La grande inflation, Ibid., pp. 127 and 60 (summarizing the tables of Peter Mathias and Patrick O'Brien, but with the index numbers recalculated on the basis of 1725 = index 100), 62-65, 96, 367, 461-62.
143. James C. Riley, "French Finances, 1727-1768," Journal of Modern History 59 (1987): 209-43,
144. and The Seven Years' War and the Old Regime in France: The Economic and Financial Toll (Princeton, N.J., 1986).
145. For the money supply, see Riley and J. J. McCusker, "Money Supply, Economic Growth and the Quantity Theory of Money: France, 1650-1788," Explorations in Economic History 20 (1983): 274-93.
146. Michael D. Bordo and Eugene N. White, "A Tale of Two Currencies: British and French Finance during the Napoleonic War," Journal of Economic History 51 (1991): 308 (fig. 5);
147. Crouzet, La grande inflation, p. 122.
148. Richard Bonney, "The Eighteenth Century: II. The Struggle for Great Power Status and the End of the Old Fiscal Regime," in Economic Systems and State Finance, ed. Bonney, pp. 341-43, 386-87.
149. Sources cited in Richard Bonney, "Economic Systems and State Finance, ibid., p. 317.
150. Wantje Fritschy, "Taxation in Britain, France, and the Netherlands in the Eighteenth Century," Economic and Social History in Netherlands 2 (1990): 57-79.
151. For a truly magisterial study of the fiscal structures of three of the provinces (Holland, Groningen, and Overijssel), see Leendert van der Ent, Wantje Fritschy, Edwin Horlings, and R. Liesker, "Public Finance in the United Provinces of the Netherlands in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," in Crises, Revolutions, and Self-Sustained Growth, ed. Ormrod, Bonney, and Bonney (n. 24 above).
152. The author is grateful to Andrew Hanham for this expression and for clarification of the financial role of Parliament after the Glorious Revolution.
153. Julian Swann, Politics and the Parlement of Paris under Louis XV, 1754-1774 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 183, 220, 286-87, 290, 367.
154. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu (n. 16 above), pp. 200-201, 212-13, 237.
155. William Doyle, Officers, Nobles, and Revolutionaries: Essays on Eighteenth-Century France (London, 1995), p. 32;
156. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, p. 35, for the opposition of the provincial parlements to the extension of the vingtièmes, and p. 151.
157. Price (n. 34 above), pp. 65-66; J. Hardman, Louis XVI (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1993), p. 72.
158. Hardman, pp. 59-60.
159. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, p. 189. After 1765, the taille had been increasing steadily until that date.
160. Bonney, "Revenues," in Economic Systems and State Finance (n. 14 above), pp. 479, 481.
161. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, pp. 13, 56, 70, 73.
162. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, Ibid., pp. 85, 87, 96, 100.
163. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, Ibid., pp. 142-45, 157.
164. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, Ibid., p. 191.
165. Richard Bonney, "Comparative Fiscal Systems on the Eve of Modernity: The French Enquiry of 1763," in Bonney, The Limits of Absolutism (see n. 45 above).
166. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu (n. 16 above), pp. 269, 271.
167. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu (Ibid., pp. 265, 275, 279, 286-87.
168. e siècle: Un paysage retrouvé (Paris, 1995), pp. 85, 92-95.
169. Touzery, L'invention de l'impôt sur le revenu, pp. 342, 365-67, 375-77.
170. However, the study on this is now somewhat dated: Robert Schnerb, La péréquation fiscale de l'Assemblée constituante, 1790-1791 (Clermont-Ferrand, 1936).
171. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), p. 85.
172. Michael P. Fitzsimmons, The Remaking of France: The National Assembly and the Constitution of 1791 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 24, 37, 257, 172-73.
173. James B. Collins, Classes, Estates, and Order in Early Modern Brittany (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 60, 242-43, 246, 285-86.
174. Michael D. Bordo and Eugene N. White, "British and French Finance during the Napoleonic Wars," in Monetary Regimes in Transition, ed. Michael D. Bordo and Forrest Capie, p. 250.
175. Nominally, 243.5 million livres of revenues were in the general farm by this date; see George T. Matthews, The Royal General Farms in Eighteenth-Century France (New York, 1958), p. 88.
176. e siècles: Étude historique (Geneva, 1989), p. 78.
177. e siècle," L'administration des finances sous l'Ancien Régime (Paris, 1997), p. 118.
178. Price (n. 34 above), pp. 108-9.
179. For the crisis of 1521-25: Hamon (n. 18 above), p. 133. See definition of fiscal crisis in Hoffman and Norberg (n. 1 above), p. 2. Norberg discusses "the fiscal crisis of 1788," ibid., pp. 290-98. Her verdict (pp. 296-97) that the creation of the Assembly in 1789 dealt with the problem of taxpayers' compliance is disproven by the research of Timothy J. A. Le Goff and Donald M. G. Sutherland cited above.
180. Richard Bonney and W. M. Ormrod, "Introduction: Crises, Revolutions, and Self-Sustained Growth: Towards a Conceptual Model of Change in Fiscal History," in Crises, Revolutions, and Self-Sustained Growth, ed. Ormrod, Bonney, and Bonney (n. 24 above).
181. Price (n. 34 above), p. 105.
182. Hilton L. Root, "Institutions, Interest Groups, and Authority in Ancien Régime France," French History 6 (1992): 411-34, at p. 429, and
183. La construction de l'état moderne (n. 30 above), p. 301.
184. Doyle, Officers, Nobles, and Revolutionaries (n. 95 above), pp. 125-31.
185. Guy Antonetti, "La Révolution et la première tentative de contrôle des changes," in État, finances et économie pendant la Révolution française (n. 78 above), pp. 261-72;
186. Crouzet, La grande inflation (n. 3 above), pp. 163-68.
187. Brezis and Crouzet, "The Role of assignats" (n. 75 above), pp. 10, 37-38.
188. William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1989), p. 85.
189. Hardman, Louis XVI, pp. 60-61.
190. Gail Bossenga, The Politics of Privilege: Old Regime and Revolution in Lille (Cambridge, 1991), p. 202. Her second chapter (pp. 22-46) is entitled "State Finance and Local Privileges."
191. Fitzsimmons, The Remaking of France, pp. 6, 8.
192. Quoted in Bonney, "The Struggle for Great Power Status," in Economic Systems and State Finance (n. 14 above), p. 349.
193. Bonney, "Economic Systems and State Finance (Ibid., pp. 322, 348, 350-51;
194. Brezis and Crouzet, "The Role of assignats," p. 37.
195. Price (n. 34 above), p. 208.
196. Hardman, Louis XIV, pp. 94, 100.
197. J. E. Crowley, "Neo-Mercantilism and The Wealth of Nations: British Commercial Policy after the American Revolution," Historical Journal 33 (1990): 339-60.
198. J. V. Nye, "The Myth of Free-trade Britain and Fortress France: Tariffs and Trade in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Economic History 51 (1991): 23-44.
199. e siècles)," Revue internationale d'histoire de la banque 2 (1969): 299-314.
200. e siècle: bureaucratie ou capitalisme?" Histoire économique et financière de la France: Études et documents, vol. 3, 1991 (Paris, 1991), pp. 137-224, at pp. 147-50.