Egyptian secret societies, 1911

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 603-623

  Tauber, Eliezer ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

SOCIAL HISTORY; SOCIAL ORGANIZATION;

AFRICA; EGYPT; NORTH AFRICA;

EID: 33750120808     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: 17437881     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263200600642290     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Butrus Ghali's murder is mentioned in almost every book dealing with the modern political history of Egypt. The most extensive publication about the affair is M.A.R. Burj, Dirasa fi al-Haraka al-Wataniyya al-Misriyya: Wizarat Butrus Ghali 1908-1910 ([Cairo]: Maktabat al-Anjlu al-Misriyya, 1980). Burj based a major part of his study on Qadiyyat Ightiyal Butrus Basha Ghali: Crime Case No.140, 'Abdin, 1910, and also on the contemporary press.
2. Also M. Badrawi, Political Violence in Egypt 1910-1924 (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000), based the chapter dealing with Ghali's murder on the same police file, which amounts to more than 800 pages.
3. See also S. Seikaly, 'Prime Minister and Assassin: Butrus Ghali and Wardani', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.13, No.1 (1977), pp.112-23. For Ghali's biography see:
4. M.H. Haykal, Tarajim Misriyya wa-Gharbiyya (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1980), pp.105-21.
5. Burj, p.123.
6. Al-Ahram, 21 Feb. 1910, cited in Burj, p.123
7. 'A.R. al-Rafi'i, Muhammad Farid Ramz al-Ikhlas wal-Tadhiya (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 3rd ed. 1961), p.186
8. Badrawi, p.32
9. Seikaly, p.117, citing FO 141/802: Letter from Eldon Gorst (Cairo) to Edward Grey (London), 24 Feb. 1910. Seikaly argues that Wardani's accusations against Ghali were not justified, as Ghali was a mere victim of the circumstances.
10. Burj, pp.127-8, 132, 135, 137, 142-3
11. Al-Rafi'i, p.187
12. Badrawi, pp.34-5, 41.
13. Al-Rafi'i, p.186
14. Burj, pp.115, 118-20, citing al-Liwa', 23 Feb. 1910 and
15. al-Ahram, 24 Feb. 1910
16. Badrawi, p.29.
17. Burj, pp.105-6
18. Badrawi, pp.58, 60, 62 (summarizing Qanun al-Ittihad al-Islami)
19. I.A. Ghali, L'Egypte Nationaliste et Libe'rale de Moustapha Kamel a' Saad Zaghloul (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1969), p.108, citing a report by A. Saroit Pasha, 30 March 1910.
20. Burj, pp.106, 127, citing al-Mu'ayyad, 27 Feb. 1910 and
21. al-Muqattam, 28 Feb. 1910
22. Badrawi, pp.64-5 (summarizing Al-Qanun)
23. Seikaly, p.121
24. J. Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution (London: Faber & Faber, 1972), p.260
25. Burj, pp.201-3, brings a verbatim record of 'Aqd Sharikat al-Tadamun al-Akhawi (22 articles), signed by 14 people, Wardani among them, on 1 March 1909.
26. A bad choice, as Wardani's own business, the pharmacy, was losing money and ran into debts. See Badrawi, pp.71 and 76 note 69.
27. Burj, pp.105-6, 127
28. Badrawi, pp.57-8, 60, 72, 77 note 81, citing the confession made by Shafiq Mansur (on whom see below) in 1925, following the murder of Lee Stack.
29. The Public Record Office (Kew), PRO 30/57/36: Despatch 68 from Milne Cheetham (Cairo) to Grey, 30 June 1911, enclosing note from R[onald] G[raham] to Cheetham, 24 June 1911. On Harvey Pasha see: T. Russell, Egyptian Service 1902-1946 (London: Murray, 1949), p.163,
30. and R. Seth, Russell Pasha (London: W. Kimber, 1966), p.95. In the First World War Harvey became the top expert in Cairo at identifying Turks and their sympathizers and arresting them.
31. See Russell, p.164. Russell succeeded Harvey in 1917 as commandant of the Cairo Police. On the Secret Service Bureau (Maktab al-Khidma al-Sirriyya lil-'Amal al-Siyasi)
32. see also L. 'Awad, Ta'rikh al-Fikr al-Misri al-Hadith min 'Asr Isma'il ila Thawrat 1919 ([Cairo]: Al-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-'Amma lil-Kuttab, 1983), Vol.2, pp.200-201,
33. and Badrawi, p.88, citing al-Ahram, 12 Aug. 1912.
34. The British consul general, that is, Egypt's governor, Eldon Gorst, was then in his last days of office; he died in July.
35. On this see Badrawi, pp.85 and 106 note 34.
36. M. Farid, Awraq Muhammad Farid: Mudhakkirati ba'da al-Hijra (1904-1919) (Cairo: Al-Hay'a al- Misriyya al-'Amma lil-Kuttab, 1978), pp.66-9, 71-2.
37. Al-Rafi'i, pp.221, 224-5, 261, 333-4.
38. Ibid., pp.316, 354-5, 359
39. Farid, p.98.
40. For a biography of 'Umar Lutfi see K.D. al-Zirikli, Al-A'lam: Qamus Tarajim li-Ashhur al-Rijal wal-Nisa' min al-'Arab wal-Musta'ribin wal-Mustashriqin (Beirut, 3rd ed. 1969), Vol.5, p.221
41. Y.A. Sarkis, Mu'jam al-Matbu'at al-'Arabiyya wal-Mu'arraba (Cairo: Matba'at Sarkis bi-Misr, 1928), pp.1381-2
42. M. Najib (ed.), A'lam Misr fil-Qarn al-'Ishrin (Cairo: Wikalat Anba' al-Sharq al-Awsat, 1996), p.349. Lutfi was among the lawyers who defended the other detainees in the preliminary stage of the Wardani trial.
43. See al-Rafi'i, p.187.
44. PRO 30/57/36: Despatch 68 from Cheetham to Grey, 30 June 1911.
45. E. Burke III, Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco: Precolonial Protest and Resistance, 1860-1912 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp.161 (citing FO 413/54: Despatch 159 from White to Grey, 14 June 1911) and 205 (citing FO 413/57: Kennard to Hunter, 13 August 1912).
46. See also idem, 'Pan-Islam and Moroccan Resistance to French Colonial Penetration, 1900-1912', Journal of African History, Vol.13, No.1 (1972), pp.97-118. I wish to thank Professor Michael Laskier for drawing my attention to these sources.
47. E. Tauber, 'Rashid Rida as Pan-Arabist before World War I', Muslim World, Vol.79, No.2 (1989), pp.104-6.
48. FO 371/1011: Despatch 717 from Gerard Lowther (Istanbul) to Grey, 9 Oct. 1910; Al-Manar, Vol.14, No.1, 30 Jan. 1911, pp.37-40, 54, 59-62; Vol.14, No.2, 1 March 1911, pp.121-4 (all articles written against Rida by the Egyptian nationalists, mainly by 'Abd al-'Aziz Jawish - on him, see below - and cited by Rida in his periodical); Vol.14, No.3, 30 March 1911, p.199
49. Farid, pp.116-17
50. C.C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh (New York: Russell & Russell, [1933] repr. 1968), p.184.
51. Badrawi, p.79, citing FO 371/892: Despatch 57 from Gorst to Grey, 6 May 1910.
52. For 'Abd al-'Aziz Jawish's biography, including a study of his work as an educator and a social and Islamic reformer, and an analysis of his pan-Islamic views, based on his writings, see A. al-Jundi, 'Abd al-'Aziz Jawish: Min Ruwwad al-Tarbiya wal-Sahafa wal-Ijtima' ([Cairo]: al-Mu'assasa al-Misriyya al- 'Amma lil-Ta'lif wal-Anba' wal-Nashr, 1965). A concise biography may be found in al-Zirikli, Vol.4, p.140.
53. See also: Farid, pp.103-4.
54. For a concise biography of Mansur see al-Zirikli, Vol.3, pp.247-8. More detail may be found in Badrawi, pp.56, 58-9, 72, 77 note 81, 118-19, 121, 123, 175, 202, 204, 214. Badrawi extensively used Qadiyyat Ightiyal al-Sir Lee Stack Basha, Sirdar al-Jaysh al-Misri wa-Hakim al-Sudan al-'Amm: Crime Case No. 110, Sayyida Zaynab, 1925. See also Najib, p.257
55. Burj, pp.105, 124, 132
56. Farid, p.263; Al-Rafi'i, p.187
57. Ghali, p.108; 'Awad, p.200.
58. S.I. 'Ali, Al-Mujtama' al-Misri fi 'Ahd al-Ihtilal al-Baritani 1882-1923 (Cairo: Maktabat al-Anjlu al-Misriyya, 1972), p.645, citing al-Muqattam, 18 April 1910
59. J. Marlowe, A History of Modern Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Relations 1800-1953 (New York: Praeger, 1954), p.210.
60. P. de Tarrazi, Ta'rikh al-Sahafa al-'Arabiyya (Beirut: Al-Matba'a al-Adabiyya, 1913-14).
61. 'Abd al-'Aziz Jawish. See above.
62. Jawish promoted then a plan to improve Egypt's educational system by turning it national and nongovernmental.
63. On this society - Wardani's society - see the introduction.
64. Jam'iyyat al-Ta'awun was the first name for Jam'iyyat al-Tadamun al-Akhawi.
65. The Ottoman Empire.
66. Husayn Taymur headed the Nationalist Party's local committee at 'Abbasiyya (Wardani was his deputy in this committee). He also headed Lajnat al-Irsaliyyat al-'Ilmiyya (The Scientific Missions Committee), an organization intended to help Egyptian students in getting accepted in European universities (Wardani was the secretary of this committee). He was arrested the day after Ghali's murder, interrogated and released. See Burj, pp.102, 115.
67. Muhammad al-Alfi was in Tanta on the day Ghali was murdered, being sent there by the Engineering School for training. He was arrested and sent to Cairo for interrogation. See ibid., p.126.
68. Should be al-Tadamun, which, as explained above, turned in 1909 into a financial enterprise intended to gain its members monetary benefits.
69. Founder of al-'Ukaz newspaper in Cairo in 1913.
70. Apparently the society had branches in other places. Badrawi, p.68, mentions a meeting of the society which took place in Upper Egypt.
71. According to the above source, the society was composed of Azharian religious scholars.
72. Egyptian State Railways. During the 1920s numerous attempts were made against British officials of the Egyptian State Railways, partly explained by the bad treatment the Egyptian employees suffered at the hands of their British foremen. See Badrawi, pp.2, 16 note 10, 177.
73. Following the formation of the new government after the murder of Butrus Ghali, Sa'd Zaghlul was appointed minister of justice.
74. About this society see the introduction.
75. Muhammad al-Shiri'i was a member of the Constitutional Reform Party (Hizb al-Islah 'ala al-Mabadi' al-Dusturiyya) of 'Ali Yusuf. He was a rich landowner. In late 1919 he participated in the Free Independent Party (al-Hizb al-Mustaqill al-Hurr) until it disbanded following threats of Wafd supporters. He also bought the al-Ahali newspaper and turned it anti-Wafdist. Badrawi, pp.151, 156. See also pp.169-70 note 134, on Shiri'i's contacts with Sa'd Zaghlul regarding his possible participation in the original wafd (delegation).
76. Tripolitania (Western Libya).
77. On him, see the introduction. Tahir used to publish articles in al-Mu'ayyad against France's presence in North Africa. When Cheetham sent the report to Grey, he attached to it one of Tahir's articles, titled 'L'Angleterre et la France font entre elles un trafic d'échanges sur les pays musulmans l'Égypte et le Maroc', denouncing the Anglo-French collaboration on the expense of both Egyptians and Moroccans. See PRO 30/57/36: Despatch 68 from Cheetham to Grey, 30 June 1911, enclosure 3 (extract from al-Mu'ayyad, 13 June 1911).
78. See the introduction.
79. About him, see the introduction.
80. See note 25.
81. Founded the Majallat al-Majallat journal in 1922.
82. 'Ali Ahmad al-Jirjawi founded the al-Irshad newspaper in Cairo in 1905. According to Sarkis, pp.682- 3, he was the president of Jam'iyyat al-Azhar al-'Ilmiyya (Scientific Society of al-Azhar) and published books on Islam and the British and on legislation.
83. In 1936 a certain Muhammad Amin 'Abduh published an article in the Cairene al-Shabab journal about the Wardani case, claiming that in 1899 Ghali actually deceived the Egyptian Khedive by telling him that if he would not accept the condominium agreement Cromer (the British governor) would depose him. Perhaps this is the 'Abduh mentioned here.
84. See note 25. A merchant complained to the police that a student from al-Azhar was coming to him to collect money for the society and gave him an unsigned receipt in return. As the merchant suspected the student of taking the money for himself, the police summoned the student for questioning. However, as both the society's president and Jawish confirmed that the student was collecting money for the society, which he delivered to Jawish, the charges against the student were withdrawn. See Badrawi, pp.84-5. According to Badrawi, the society was mainly engaged in collecting money and wording its statute.
85. Mainly in the house of a student from the School of Arts and Crafts. See ibid., p.84.
86. According to ibid., pp.89 and 92, the society was founded in 1911 by Jawish.
87. That is, the British consul general (Egypt's governor) Eldon Gorst.
88. The others were students and employees of al-Azhar. See Badrawi, p.84.
89. Among the papers seized was a speech against the government, praising Wardani for the jihad (holy war) he had carried out. See Badrawi, p.85.
90. 'Ali Yusuf, founder of the Constitutional Reform Party (Hizb al-Islah 'ala al-Mabadi' al-Dusturiyya), which supported the Khedive. According to Badrawi, the plan was to poison the glue of the newspaper's envelopes.
91. A future prime minister of Egypt during the 1920s and 1930s. Was considered then a supporter of the king and a puppet in the hands of the British.
92. In July 1910, the poet 'Ali al-Ghayati published a diwan (collection of poems) titled Wataniyyati (My Patriotism), in which he denounced the Egyptian government for its despotism and the Egyptian Khedive for his apathy towards Egypt's miseries and his willingness to appease the foreigners. Wardani was praised in the diwan as someone who had sacrificed his life for his country. Both Farid and Jawish wrote forewords to the book. Farid wrote a general introduction about the impact of poetry on nations and their willingness to fight. Jawish extolled the book and encouraged the people to read it. The authorities considered the book inflammatory and brought charges against Ghayati, Farid and Jawish. The trial took place in August, but Ghayati had already left for Istanbul in order to avoid prosecution while Farid was travelling in Europe. Jawish attended the trial and was sentenced to three months in gaol, which he served (Nasim headed the Prosecution). Ghayati was sentenced in absentia to one year with hard labour. In January 1911, shortly after he had returned from Europe, Farid was summoned to trial, and although he claimed that he actually had not read the book before writing his preface (he wrote it in February, left for Europe in May, and the book was published in July), he nevertheless was sentenced to six months in gaol, which he served (Nasim headed the Prosecution). Al-Rafi'i, pp.226-7, 273, 275-8
93. Farid, p.149
94. Al-Jundi, pp.98-100
95. 'Awad, p.285
96. Badrawi, pp.79-80 (citing FO 371/893, file 25879, and FO 407/175, No.106: Despatch 108 from Cheetham to Grey, 7 Aug. 1910,
97. and al-Ahram, 8 Aug. 1910)
98. A. Goldschmidt, 'The Egyptian Nationalist Party', in P.M. Holt (ed.), Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp.326-7.
99. Specimens of Faraj's handwriting obtained by the police resembled the handwriting in this letter. See Badrawi, p.84.
100. Should be Faraj; Sarrawi was the president.
101. Ronald Graham, the British adviser to the Ministry of the Interior.
102. Thabat Faraj al-Jirjawi was a prominent member of Hizb al-Nubala' (The Party of the Nobles), established in October 1908 by former members of the Nationalist Party who opposed the attacks on the Khedive carried out by the Nationalist Party's newspaper, al-Liwa'. Besides its pro-Khedive proclivities the party also was pro-Ottoman. It did not last long. On the party see J.M. Landau, Parliaments and Parties in Egypt (Tel Aviv: Israel Publishing House, 1953), p.144.
103. Muhammad Zaki 'Ali, a lawyer, was a member of the administrative committee of the Nationalist Party (in late 1919 he was the party's secretary). See Al-Rafi'i, pp.272, 451. In September 1910 he participated in the Nationalist Congress at Brussels and delivered a speech on the Sudan question, arguing that according to international law the 1899 condominium agreement was null and void.
104. Ibid., p.251. On this congress see note 76.
105. See note 63.
106. Founded al-Sha'b newspaper in March 1910 and again in 1911.
107. In early March 1910 al-'Alam succeeded al-Liwa' as the Nationalist Party's newspaper. (On the circumstances which preceded this, see the introduction.) When soon thereafter al-'Alam was suspended by the authorities for two months it was succeeded by al-Sha'b until the suspension terminated. In late 1911 al-'Alam was again suspended by the authorities, this time for three months, and again was succeeded by al-Sha'b. In November 1912 al-'Alam was closed permanently by the authorities, resulting in the reappearance of al-Sha'b. See Al-Rafi'i, pp.189, 308, 345-6
108. Farid, p.72.
109. See society no. 19.
110. Colonel.
111. Ahmad 'Urabi, the leader of the 'Urabi movement (1879-82).
112. Should be Mahmud 'Izzat. On him and the full story behind this, see the introduction.
113. It was the second anniversary of Mustafa Kamil's death.
114. See note 66.
115. On this society see the introduction.
116. 'Uthman Ghalib, a physician and a former teacher of natural sciences in the Egyptian School of Medicine, emigrated to Europe and used to stay in France and Switzerland. For a short biography see al-Zirikli, Vol.4, pp.375-6.
117. See also Sarkis, p.1308,
118. and Najib, p.329. He was a prominent member of the Nationalist Party and also participated in the Nationalist Congress at Brussels (al-Rafi'i, p.250). However, when Farid served his term in prison in 1911 (see note 55) a friction between the two men occurred. Ghalib was sent to Farid by the Khedive offering him amnesty, which Farid declined, rebuking Ghalib for his involvement in this matter. A few months later Ghalib was already accused by al-'Alam of collaborating with the Khedive, following which Ghalib published an article in al- Mu'ayyad describing the services he had done for the party and accusing Farid of mediocre leadership and of spending the party's money on financial speculation and on women. Farid believed that Ghalib had turned into an agent of the secret police, trying to mediate between the Egyptian students in Paris and the Khedive.
119. See Farid, pp.102, 112, 149,
120. and al-Rafi'i, p.285.
121. 'Izzat Shukri was classmate of Farid during his law studies and later on a judge in al-Mahakim al- Ahliyya (the indigenous courts), from which he retired on a pension in late 1910 on the pretext of fake illness. In 1911 he was a candidate for the position of general secretary of the Alexandria municipal council, but was refused by Gorst due to his relations with the Nationalists. Later on he offered himself as a supervisor on behalf of the government of the Egyptian students in Paris, and this time was refused by Gorst's successor, Lord Kitchener, for similar reasons. Farid rebuked Shukri for his willingness to serve in this position, arguing that this job was sheer espionage. Following this, Shukri lost the confidence of the Nationalists. See Farid, pp.96-8.
122. A future prime minister of Egypt during the 1930s and 1940s. Was then considered 'the strong man' in Egyptian politics and a pragmatic supporter of the king.
123. Ahmad Wafiq was employed as a lawyer in Muhammad Farid's office and also worked as a journalist in the Nationalist Party's newspapers. In the Nationalist Congress at Brussels he delivered a speech on the history of education in Egypt. Used to accompany Farid in his travels to Europe, though Farid had a low opinion of him, considering him conceited, spoiled, a drunkard and squanderer. He was arrested several times by the British. For a short biography see al-Zirikli, Vol.1, p.251. See also al-Rafi'i, pp.246, 300, 420,
124. and Farid, p.445.
125. Public Prosecutor from 1919, and minister of education, transport and foreign affairs during the 1920s. In the early 1930s presided over the Egyptian parliament.
126. In 1910 Muhammad Farid decided to hold the third congress of the Nationalist Party in Paris, in order to publicize the Egyptian question in Europe. In August an organizing committee was formed and many European statesmen were invited to attend the congress sessions. However, on the eve of the congress the French government decided to prevent its being held in Paris in order not to antagonize the British. Consequently, it was decided to move the congress to Brussels, where it took place from 22 to 24 September. The congress discussed the political situation in Egypt, its administrative, agricultural and financial problems, and Egypt's education. Its main resolutions focused on the illegality of the British occupation of Egypt, the need for a constitution, the invalidity of the Sudan condominium agreement, and the demand for the abolition of some repressive laws, such as the press law and the law of administrative exile. The proceedings of the congress were published as Oeuvres du Congrès National Égyptien Tenu à Bruxelles le 22, 23, 24 Septembre 1910 (Brussels, 1910). Al-Rafi'i, pp.230-55, describes in detail the preparations for the congress and its discussions and speeches.
127. See also: Landau, p.127
128. Goldschmidt, p.326
129. G. Hanotaux (ed.), Histoire de la Nation Égyptienne (Paris: Plon, 1940), Vol.7, p.226.
130. Not the Isma'il Sidqi whose details are mentioned in note 73. He was a prominent member of the Nationalist Party, elected to its administrative committee in January 1911. See al-Rafi'i, p.272. Considered extremist, in 1918 Sa'd Zaghlul refused his inclusion in the Wafd.
131. On this see Badrawi, p.165 note 26.
132. Used to travel with Muhammad Farid in Europe. See al-Rafi'i, pp.371, 403,
133. and Farid, p.437.
134. As a reporter of Wadi al-Nil newspaper, in 1919 accompanied the Egyptian delegation to Paris to attend the peace conference. Ibid., Farid.
135. According to Farid, who visited it once or twice, the society operated in the Da'udiyya region in Cairo. Ibid.
136. According to Badrawi, p.19 note 38 and p.68, the society worked to educate the public and also recommended the politicization of the fellahin (peasants).
137. According to ibid., p.68, the society comprised teachers and students of governmental schools, and was also joined by religious scholars. Its meetings were attended by hundreds of youths.
138. Since Egypt was nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, there was an Ottoman high commission in Cairo.
139. Sayyid al-Ghunaymi Muhammad al-Taftazani founded the al-Basha'ir newspaper in Cairo in 1909.
140. In April 1911, after a three month siege the Yemenite rebels under Imam Yahya laid to San'a, the Ottoman commander 'Izzat Pasha managed to relieve the city and the rebels retreated northwards. However, instead of continuing the fight, 'Izzat Pasha entered into negotiations with the rebels, and in October the Treaty of Da''an was signed between the two sides, which recognized the local autonomy of Yahya.
141. The ruling party of the Young Turks.
142. On this society and 'Umar Lutfi, see the introduction.
143. On this society and Rashid Rida, see the introduction (see also note 18).
144. Prince Muhammad 'Ali was the younger brother of Khedive 'Abbas Hilmi. He was the crown prince in the times of both 'Abbas Hilmi and of King Faruq (before Fu'ad II was born). Left Egypt after the 1952 revolution. For a short biography see Najib, p.430. The British interpreted the fact that since he was the honorary president of Rida's society, that in the absence of other assistance for his project, Rida had fallen back on the support of the Khedive. See PRO 30/57/36: Despatch 68 from Cheetham to Grey, 30 June 1911. Indeed Rida's school was financed by both the Khedive and the Egyptian Awqaf ministry (Tauber, p.106).
145. Captain.