메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 144-157

Vicissitudes of benefit sharing of crop genetic resources: Downstream and upstream

Author keywords

Benefit sharing; Commutative justice; Consultation; Distributive justice; Plant genetic resources

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; ARTICLE; COMPENSATION; CROP PRODUCTION; DECISION MAKING; FOOD SECURITY; MODEL; NONHUMAN; PLANT GENETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESEARCH; SOCIAL JUSTICE; WELFARE;

EID: 33750080158     PISSN: 14718731     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-8847.2006.00167.x     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (21)

References (88)
  • 1
    • 1942456380 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York, NY: UN. Available at: [Accessed 23 July 2006]
    • United Nations (UN). 2000. Millennium Development Goals. New York, NY: UN. Available at: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ [Accessed 23 July 2006].
    • (2000) Millennium Development Goals
  • 5
    • 33750071794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A New Social Contract on Biotechnology
    • Online. Available at: [Accessed 23 July 2006]
    • Compare with Louise Fresco, adjunct director general FAO: 'What we are witnessing is a molecular divide between developed and developing countries, between rich and poor farmers, between research priorities and needs, between technology development and technology transfer - in short, between the promise of biotechnology and its real impact', in L.O. Fresco. A New Social Contract on Biotechnology. Agriculture 21 2003: Online. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/ magazine/0305sp1.htm [Accessed 23 July 2006].
    • (2003) Agriculture , vol.21
    • Fresco, L.O.1
  • 6
    • 33750068047 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We will focus primarily on the agricultural sector and thus on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, or crop genetic resources for short. However, as crop genetic resources are part of the general category of plant genetic resources the latter will also be discussed.
  • 7
    • 33750085087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For example, The Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group on Access and Benefit-Sharing of the Convention on Biological Diversity is at present negotiating an International Regime on Access and Benefit-Sharing.
  • 8
    • 33646069297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benefit-sharing: An Inquiry Regarding the Meaning and Limits of the Concept in Human Genetic Research
    • 37
    • K. Simm. Benefit-sharing: An Inquiry Regarding the Meaning and Limits of the Concept in Human Genetic Research. Genomics, Society and Policy 2005; 1(2): 29-40: 37.
    • (2005) Genomics, Society and Policy , vol.1 , Issue.2 , pp. 29-40
    • Simm, K.1
  • 11
    • 33750046104 scopus 로고
    • Montego Bay: UN. Available at: [Accessed 28 July 2006]
    • United Nations (UN). 1982. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Montego Bay: UN. Available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/ convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf [Accessed 28 July 2006];
    • (1982) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
  • 12
    • 33750059259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York, NY: UN. Available at: [Accessed 28 July 2006]
    • United Nations (UN). 1998. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective). New York, NY: UN. Available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/ convention_historical_perspective.htm [Accessed 28 July 2006]: In this text it is stated that 'In 1970 the United Nations General Assembly declared the resources of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction to be "the common heritage of mankind".'
    • (1998) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective)
  • 14
    • 33750077676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United Nations, note 10: Preamble; with explicit references to 'Common Heritage' in article 136, and to 'Benefit Sharing' in article 140
    • United Nations, The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective). op. cit. note 10: Preamble; with explicit references to 'Common Heritage' in article 136, and to 'Benefit Sharing' in article 140.
    • The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective)
  • 15
    • 33750035875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philadelphia, PA: Conference Paper: 2. Available at: [Accessed 13 March 2006]
    • B. Knoppers. 2003. Perspective(s): International Law & Ethics, HUGO Experience. Philadelphia, PA: Conference Paper: 2. Available at: http://www.bioethics.upenn.edu/prog/benefit/pdf/Knoppers_Barbara.pdf [Accessed 13 March 2006].
    • (2003) Perspective(s): International Law & Ethics, HUGO Experience
    • Knoppers, B.1
  • 16
    • 0042272278 scopus 로고
    • Rome, Italy: FAO. Available at: [Accessed 28 July 2006]
    • Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). 1983. International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources. Rome, Italy: FAO. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ ag/cgrfa/IU.htm [Accessed 28 July 2006].
    • (1983) International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources
  • 20
    • 33750067448 scopus 로고
    • See Montreal: UNEP/CBD. Available at: [Accessed 23 July 2006]
    • See Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992. Montreal: UNEP/CBD. Available at: http://www.biodiv.org/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2006].
    • (1992) Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992
  • 22
    • 33750084247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Resolution 3/91 of the IUPGR already states that 'the concept of mankind's heritage . . . is subject to the sovereignty of the states over their plant genetic resources.' The CBD takes the final step and abandons the notion of common heritage.
  • 24
    • 33750087625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In the CBD, genetic resources are actually defined as 'genetic material of actual or potential value': Article 2.
  • 26
    • 0036620266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Carving up the Commons - Emergence of a New International Regime for Germplasm Development and Transfer
    • see: 210
    • For example, '[The CGIAR (see footnote 29)] averaged 9782 acquisitions annually for the five calendar years before the CBD. In 1997 . . . the number of new accessions was only 563. The decline in the number of collection missions was even steeper', see W.P. Falcon & C. Fowler. Carving up the Commons - Emergence of a New International Regime for Germplasm Development and Transfer. Food Policy 2002; 27: 197-222: 210.
    • (2002) Food Policy , vol.27 , pp. 197-222
    • Falcon, W.P.1    Fowler, C.2
  • 27
    • 29444456571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Agricultural Biological Diversity for Food Security: Shaping International Initiatives to Help Agriculture and the Environment
    • For more information on the complex negotiation history of the ITPGRFA and its relation to the CBD and other relevant Treaties see, for example, C. Stannard et al. Agricultural Biological Diversity for Food Security: Shaping International Initiatives to Help Agriculture and the Environment. Howard Law J 2004; 48: 397-430;
    • (2004) Howard Law J , vol.48 , pp. 397-430
    • Stannard, C.1
  • 31
    • 33750075245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Payment is voluntary if others can use the commercialized product, without restriction, for further research and breeding, it is compulsory if not.
  • 32
    • 33750062365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more information see
    • The CGIAR centres hold a substantial percentage (over 500.000 items) of the germplasm in ex-situ storage. For more information see: http://www.cgiar. org.
  • 36
    • 0003835112 scopus 로고
    • Geneva: WTO. Available at: [Accessed 23 July 2006]
    • World Trade Organisation (WTO). 1994. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. Geneva: WTO. Available at: http://www.wto.org/ English/tratop_e/trips_e/t_agm0_e.htm [Accessed 23 July 2006]. The WTO agreements took effect on 1 January 1995 and count 149 member countries (on 11 Dec 2005). However, member states have differing deadlines to ensure that their laws conform to the TRIPS Agreement, ranging from one to 21 years depending on their development status and the patent area involved.
    • (1994) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
  • 37
    • 33750034690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Geneva: WTO: Article 27.3(b): Patentable Subject Matter. Available at: [Accessed 8 May 2006]
    • World Trade Organization (WTO). 2005. TRIPS: Part II - Standards Concerning the Availability, Scope and Use of Intellectual Property Rights. Geneva: WTO: Article 27.3(b): Patentable Subject Matter. Available at: http://www.wto.org/English/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips_04c_e.htm [Accessed 8 May 2006].
    • (2005) TRIPS: Part II - Standards Concerning the Availability, Scope and Use of Intellectual Property Rights
  • 39
    • 20644469037 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Protecting and Sharing Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge: Holder and User Tools
    • For more information see, for example
    • It is not in the scope of this article to go into depth with these debates. For more information see, for example, G. Van Overwalle. Protecting and Sharing Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge: Holder and User Tools. Ecol Econ 2005; 53: 585-607.
    • (2005) Ecol Econ , vol.53 , pp. 585-607
    • Van Overwalle, G.1
  • 43
    • 33750083120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Protecting Traditional Agricultural Knowledge
    • S.B. Brush. Protecting Traditional Agricultural Knowledge. J Law Policy 2005; 17: 59-109.
    • (2005) J Law Policy , vol.17 , pp. 59-109
    • Brush, S.B.1
  • 46
    • 11844304316 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hyperownership in a Time of Biotechnological Promise: The International Conflict to Control the Building Blocks of Life
    • 665
    • S. Safrin. Hyperownership in a Time of Biotechnological Promise: The International Conflict to Control the Building Blocks of Life. Am J Int Law 2004; 98: 641-685: 665.
    • (2004) Am J Int Law , vol.98 , pp. 641-685
    • Safrin, S.1
  • 47
    • 0001784618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See I. Kaul et al., eds. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
    • Public goods are often described in contrast to private goods. Private goods are classified as rivalrous and excludable. Goods are rivalrous in the way that the consumption by one prevents others from enjoying the same good. They are excludable when non-owners can be excluded from consumption. Pure public goods instead are non-rivalrous and nonexcludable. This means that the consumption by one does not affect the consumption of the same good by others. Furthermore, it is either technically impossible, or too costly, to exclude non-owners from consuming the good. There are also many goods that qualify as impure public goods. These goods are either non-rivalrous but excludable or non-excludable but rivalrous. The former are also named 'club-goods' as they are often non-rivalrous inside a group. The latter are called 'common pool resources' as they are accessible to all but subject to depletion or congestion. See I. Kaul et al., eds. 1999. Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 2-19.
    • (1999) Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century , pp. 2-19
  • 62
  • 64
    • 33750041437 scopus 로고
    • New York, NY. UN: Article 27. Available at: [Accessed 28 July 2006]
    • United Nations (UN). 1948. Social Justice. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. New York, NY. UN: Article 27. Available at: http://www.un.org/Overview/ rights.html [Accessed 28 July 2006].
    • (1948) Social Justice
  • 65
    • 0004026279 scopus 로고
    • United Nations (UN). New York, NY. UN: Article 15. Available at: [Accessed 15 March 2006]
    • United Nations (UN). 1966-1976. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. New York, NY. UN: Article 15. Available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm [Accessed 15 March 2006].
    • (1966) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
  • 68
    • 84881876701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Traditional Knowledge and Benefit Sharing: From Compensation to Transaction
    • P.W.B. Phillips & C.B. Onwuekwe, eds. Dordrecht: Springer
    • D. Castle & E.R. Gold. 2006. Traditional Knowledge and Benefit Sharing: From Compensation to Transaction. In Accessing and Sharing the Benefits of the Genomics Revolution. P.W.B. Phillips & C.B. Onwuekwe, eds. Dordrecht: Springer.
    • (2006) Accessing and Sharing the Benefits of the Genomics Revolution
    • Castle, D.1    Gold, E.R.2
  • 72
    • 33750070403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This includes milestone payments that can be paid well before any final products are developed as these payments are also downstream focused, anticipating the hoped for benefits developed later on.
  • 73
    • 33750036470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See footnote 4
    • See footnote 4.
  • 78
    • 33750041721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the discussion in. note 43
    • One remarkable barrier to the implementation of consultations in existing ABS agreements is the multiple consent requirements. See the discussion in Safrin, Before Dinner: Philosophy and Ethics of Food. op. cit. note 43: 652-658.
    • Before Dinner: Philosophy and Ethics of Food , pp. 652-658
    • Safrin1
  • 79
    • 0009167447 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Köln: MPIfG Working Paper. Available at: [Accessed 10 March 2006]
    • Here we use distinctions developed by Scharpf in his analysis of legitimacy. F.W. Scharpf. 1998. Interdependence and Democratic Legitimation. Köln: MPIfG Working Paper. Available at: http://www.mpi-fg-koeln. mpg.de/pu/workpap/wp98-2/wp98-2.html [Accessed 10 March 2006].
    • (1998) Interdependence and Democratic Legitimation
    • Scharpf, F.W.1
  • 84
    • 26844533201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Working Paper 963. Berkley, CA: Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley. Available at: [Accessed 10 March 2006]
    • E.M. Godtland et al. 2004. The Impact of Farmer-Field-Schools on Knowledge and Productivity: A Study of Potato Farmers in the Peruvian Andes. Working Paper 963. Berkley, CA: Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley. Available at: http://www-gremaq.univ-tlse1.fr/files/murgai.pdf [Accessed 10 March 2006].
    • (2004) The Impact of Farmer-Field-Schools on Knowledge and Productivity: A Study of Potato Farmers in the Peruvian Andes
    • Godtland, E.M.1
  • 87
    • 33750082793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Toronto, ON: CGI-paper. Available at: [Accessed 10 March 2006]
    • T. Acharya et al. 2004. Better Global Governance to Promote Genomics for Development. Toronto, ON: CGI-paper. Available at: http://www.utoronto.ca/jcb/ genomics/documents/CGI-paper.pdf [Accessed 10 March 2006].
    • (2004) Better Global Governance to Promote Genomics for Development
    • Acharya, T.1
  • 88
    • 0037251683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bridging the Genomics Divide
    • 4
    • E. Dowdeswell et al. Bridging the Genomics Divide. Global Governance 2003; 9: 1-6: 4.
    • (2003) Global Governance , vol.9 , pp. 1-6
    • Dowdeswell, E.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.