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Volumn 69, Issue 1-2, 2006, Pages 209-258

Revisiting the legal link between genetics and crime

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EID: 33750045005     PISSN: 00239186     EISSN: 00239186     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (9)

References (446)
  • 1
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • Mobley v. State
    • (Ga.)
    • Mobley v. State, 455 S.E.2d 61 (Ga. 1995).
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.445 , pp. 61
  • 2
    • 0030338366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See generally in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • See generally Deborah W. Denno, Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour 248, 248-64 (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds., 1996) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases).
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248-264
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 3
    • 33750124701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DNA at 50: The First of a 3 Part Series, The Bad Seed
    • The news media focused on detailing the behavioral disorders across generations of the Mobley family. See, e.g., (Toronto), March 1, ("[Mobley's lawyer] knew that arguing a genetic defect would never earn an acquittal. No credible expert would testify that genes made Mr. Mobley kill. But if there was any evidence that bad behaviour ran in the Mobley family, it might hold up at the sentencing as a mitigating factor")
    • The news media focused on detailing the behavioral disorders across generations of the Mobley family. See, e.g., Carolyn Abraham, DNA at 50: The First of a 3 Part Series, The Bad Seed, Globe & Mail (Toronto), March 1, 2003, at F1 ("[Mobley's lawyer] knew that arguing a genetic defect would never earn an acquittal. No credible expert would testify that genes made Mr. Mobley kill. But if there was any evidence that bad behaviour ran in the Mobley family, it might hold up at the sentencing as a mitigating factor.");
    • (2003) Globe & Mail
    • Abraham, C.1
  • 4
    • 33750092948 scopus 로고
    • Do Your Genes Make You a Criminal?
    • (London), Feb. 12, ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history. His actions may not have been a product of totally free will.' Murder, rape, robbery, suicide, 'you name it,' the Mobley family has had it, he says")
    • Steve Connor, Do Your Genes Make You a Criminal?, Indep. on Sun. (London), Feb. 12, 1995, at 19 ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history. His actions may not have been a product of totally free will.' Murder, rape, robbery, suicide, 'you name it,' the Mobley family has had it, he says.");
    • (1995) Indep. on Sun. , pp. 19
    • Connor, S.1
  • 5
    • 33750116629 scopus 로고
    • Convicted Killer Seeks Brain Test
    • (London), Feb. 14, ("Violence, aggression and anti-social behaviour dominate the family tree of Stephen Mobley .... Lawyers acting for Mobley asked a court to allow him to undergo neurological tests to determine whether he was suffering from an imbalance of brain chemicals that may have contributed to his behaviour")
    • Convicted Killer Seeks Brain Test, Times (London), Feb. 14, 1995, at 6 ("Violence, aggression and anti-social behaviour dominate the family tree of Stephen Mobley .... Lawyers acting for Mobley asked a court to allow him to undergo neurological tests to determine whether he was suffering from an imbalance of brain chemicals that may have contributed to his behaviour.");
    • (1995) Times , pp. 6
  • 6
    • 33750117513 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Killer Blamed His Family History
    • (U.K.), Oct. 2, (According to Mobley's counsel, Mobley's criminality derived from "four generations of Mobley men," either successful or violent, "including a murderer, a rapist, an armed robber, spouse abusers, several substance abusers and Mobley's father, a self-made millionaire")
    • Michelle Henery, Killer Blamed His Family History, Times (U.K.), Oct. 2, 2002, at 5 (According to Mobley's counsel, Mobley's criminality derived from "four generations of Mobley men," either successful or violent, "including a murderer, a rapist, an armed robber, spouse abusers, several substance abusers and Mobley's father, a self-made millionaire.");
    • (2002) Times , pp. 5
    • Henery, M.1
  • 7
    • 33750131967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nature, Nurture, the "Criminal Gene" - What Makes Men Violent?
    • May 9, ("After [Mobley] was sentenced to death, his lawyers won an appeal. They argued that he was not acting on the basis of 'free will' but due to a genetic predilection. Virtually his entire family, they said, were violent")
    • Kathryn Holmquist, Nature, Nurture, the "Criminal Gene" - What Makes Men Violent?, Irish Times, May 9, 1996, at 12 ("After [Mobley] was sentenced to death, his lawyers won an appeal. They argued that he was not acting on the basis of 'free will' but due to a genetic predilection. Virtually his entire family, they said, were violent.");
    • (1996) Irish Times , pp. 12
    • Holmquist, K.1
  • 8
    • 33750093740 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Freedom Is a Better Bet than the Gene Genie
    • (U.K.), Oct. 6, ("Generations of Mobleys, starting with [Stephen's] great-grandfather, had been antisocial and violent, and his lawyers tried to argue that he was hard-wired to be bad")
    • Minette Marrin, Freedom Is a Better Bet than the Gene Genie, Sun. Times (U.K.), Oct. 6, 2002, at 3G ("Generations of Mobleys, starting with [Stephen's] great-grandfather, had been antisocial and violent, and his lawyers tried to argue that he was hard-wired to be bad.").
    • (2002) Sun. Times
    • Marrin, M.1
  • 9
    • 33750113583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence DNA Researchers Mum on Meeting, Hoping to Avoid Protests
    • Various news accounts illustrated the degree of attention the Mobley case received. See, e.g., Apr. 15, ("The [Mobley] case became a minor landmark when Mobley's ... attorney ... attempted to get Georgia to pay for a DNA analysis of Mobley in order to obtain evidence based on four generations of violence and aggressive business behavior in his family")
    • Various news accounts illustrated the degree of attention the Mobley case received. See, e.g., Mike Pezzella, Violence DNA Researchers Mum on Meeting, Hoping to Avoid Protests, Biotech. Newswatch, Apr. 15, 1996, at 14 ("The [Mobley] case became a minor landmark when Mobley's ... attorney ... attempted to get Georgia to pay for a DNA analysis of Mobley in order to obtain evidence based on four generations of violence and aggressive business behavior in his family.");
    • (1996) Biotech. Newswatch , pp. 14
    • Pezzella, M.1
  • 10
    • 33750137645 scopus 로고
    • Mobley's Death Sentence Is Upheld
    • (Gainesville, Ga.), Mar. 18, ("The [Mobley] case gained international attention when [Mobley's lawyer] Summer contended his defense was hurt by Hall Superior Court Judge Andy Fuller's refusal to approve $1,000 for the tests ... [which] could have shown that Mobley had a genetic predisposition toward violence")
    • Babs Brockway, Mobley's Death Sentence Is Upheld, Times (Gainesville, Ga.), Mar. 18, 1995, at 1 ("The [Mobley] case gained international attention when [Mobley's lawyer] Summer contended his defense was hurt by Hall Superior Court Judge Andy Fuller's refusal to approve $1,000 for the tests ... [which] could have shown that Mobley had a genetic predisposition toward violence.");
    • (1995) Times , pp. 1
    • Brockway, B.1
  • 11
    • 0029652337 scopus 로고
    • Not by Our Genes Alone
    • Feb. 25, ("Mobley's case became headline news in Britain last week, thanks to a scientific meeting on the links between genes and crime, held in London ")
    • Not by Our Genes Alone, New Sci., Feb. 25, 1995, at 3 ("Mobley's case became headline news in Britain last week, thanks to a scientific meeting on the links between genes and crime, held in London ....");
    • (1995) New Sci. , pp. 3
  • 12
    • 33750141651 scopus 로고
    • Perspective: An Inside Job Or A Set-Up?
    • Feb. 10, ("[W]hat appears to be pretty much an open and shut case - even Mobeley [sic] has never denied his guilt - has been catapulted on to the battlefield of a fierce worldwide debate")
    • Kam Patel, Adrian Raine & Steven Rose, Perspective: An Inside Job Or A Set-Up?, Times Higher Educ. Supplement, Feb. 10, 1995, at 16 ("[W]hat appears to be pretty much an open and shut case - even Mobeley [sic] has never denied his guilt - has been catapulted on to the battlefield of a fierce worldwide debate.");
    • (1995) Times Higher Educ. Supplement , pp. 16
    • Patel, K.1    Raine, A.2    Rose, S.3
  • 13
    • 33750141123 scopus 로고
    • Second Front: Genes In The Dock
    • see also (London), Mar. 13, ("Even if [the Georgia Supreme Court turns down Mobley's appeal], lawyers believe it is now no longer a case of whether genetic evidence will be allowed in court but when")
    • see also Sarah Boseley, Second Front: Genes In The Dock, Guardian (London), Mar. 13, 1995, at T2 ("Even if [the Georgia Supreme Court turns down Mobley's appeal], lawyers believe it is now no longer a case of whether genetic evidence will be allowed in court but when.");
    • (1995) Guardian
    • Boseley, S.1
  • 14
    • 33750092948 scopus 로고
    • Do Your Genes Make You a Criminal?
    • (London), Feb. 12, ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history. His actions may not have been a product of totally free will.' Murder, rape, robbery, suicide, 'you name it,' the Mobley family has had it, he says") ("[Mobley's] last chance of reprieve rests with a plea from his lawyer that the murder was not the evil result of free will but the tragic consequence of a genetic predisposition")
    • Connor, supra note 2 ("[Mobley's] last chance of reprieve rests with a plea from his lawyer that the murder was not the evil result of free will but the tragic consequence of a genetic predisposition.");
    • (1995) Indep. on Sun. , pp. 19
    • Connor, S.1
  • 15
    • 15844367927 scopus 로고
    • Legal Beat: Man's Genes Made Him Kill, His Lawyers Claim
    • Nov. 15, ("The [Mobley] case seeks to break new legal ground by bringing into court a growing body of research linking genes and aggressive behavior")
    • Edward Felsenthal, Legal Beat: Man's Genes Made Him Kill, His Lawyers Claim, Wall St. J., Nov. 15, 1994, at B1 ("The [Mobley] case seeks to break new legal ground by bringing into court a growing body of research linking genes and aggressive behavior.").
    • (1994) Wall St. J.
    • Felsenthal, E.1
  • 16
    • 33750119961 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mobley
    • Mobley, 455 S.E.2d at 66.
    • S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 66
  • 17
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • 458, (Ga.)
    • Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 463 (Ga. 1998).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 18
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • (Ga.)
    • Id. at 461.
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 461
  • 19
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • (Ga.)
    • Id. at 467.
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 467
  • 20
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • (Ga.)
    • Id. at 463-66.
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463-466
  • 21
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • (Ga.). see also infra notes 41-45 and accompanying text (discussing the testimony of Joyce Ann Mobley Childers)
    • Id. at 466; see also infra notes 41-45 and accompanying text (discussing the testimony of Joyce Ann Mobley Childers).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 466
  • 22
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 466.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 466
  • 23
    • 33750105794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Final Appeals Fail; Killer Mobley Dies
    • Mar. 2
    • Mark Davis, Final Appeals Fail; Killer Mobley Dies, Atlanta J. Const., Mar. 2, 2005, at B3;
    • (2005) Atlanta J. Const.
    • Davis, M.1
  • 24
    • 33750099043 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mobley Dies for 1991 Murder; Supreme Court Denies Last Appeals Half-Hour Before Execution
    • Mar. 2
    • Mark Davis, Mobley Dies for 1991 Murder; Supreme Court Denies Last Appeals Half-Hour Before Execution, Atlanta J. Const., Mar. 2, 2005, at 1JJ.
    • (2005) Atlanta J. Const.
    • Davis, M.1
  • 25
    • 0037688162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence - A Noxious Cocktail of Genes and the Environment
    • See, e.g., 211, ("[S]ince genetic make-up is predetermined, some might seek to make genes an excuse for misbehavior .... The case of Stephen Mobley ... is a case in point")
    • See, e.g., Mariya Moosajee, Violence - A Noxious Cocktail of Genes and the Environment, 96 J. Roy. Soc'y Med. 211, 213 (2003) ("[S]ince genetic make-up is predetermined, some might seek to make genes an excuse for misbehavior .... The case of Stephen Mobley ... is a case in point.");
    • (2003) J. Roy. Soc'y Med. , vol.96 , pp. 213
    • Moosajee, M.1
  • 26
    • 33750118600 scopus 로고
    • Genes' Link To Crime May Be Cited in Court
    • (London), Feb. 14, (describing the difficulties and misconceptions regarding genetic predisposition to criminal behavior related by participants in the Ciba conference on the Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour)
    • Sarah Boseley, Genes' Link To Crime May Be Cited in Court, Guardian (London), Feb. 14, 1995, at 4 (describing the difficulties and misconceptions regarding genetic predisposition to criminal behavior related by participants in the Ciba conference on the Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour);
    • (1995) Guardian , pp. 4
    • Boseley, S.1
  • 27
    • 33750092948 scopus 로고
    • Do Your Genes Make You a Criminal?
    • (London), Feb. 12, ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history. His actions may not have been a product of totally free will.' Murder, rape, robbery, suicide, 'you name it,' the Mobley family has had it, he says") ("[A]t a closed meeting of scientists at the Ciba Foundation in London, Mobley's family tree will again come under intense scrutiny, this time by researchers studying the link between genes and violence")
    • Connor, supra note 2 ("[A]t a closed meeting of scientists at the Ciba Foundation in London, Mobley's family tree will again come under intense scrutiny, this time by researchers studying the link between genes and violence.");
    • (1995) Indep. on Sun. , pp. 19
    • Connor, S.1
  • 28
    • 33750093735 scopus 로고
    • Scientists Can Test Foetus For Violent Gene
    • (U.K.), Feb. 14, ("Discovery of a genetic link to aggression may soon have an impact on America's legal system.") (referring to Mobley)
    • Roger Highfield, Scientists Can Test Foetus For Violent Gene, Daily Telegraph (U.K.), Feb. 14, 1995, at 4 ("Discovery of a genetic link to aggression may soon have an impact on America's legal system.") (referring to Mobley);
    • (1995) Daily Telegraph , pp. 4
    • Highfield, R.1
  • 29
    • 33750133426 scopus 로고
    • Refutation: No Such Thing as a Born Killer
    • (London), Feb. 14, (describing the Mobley appeal and the Ciba conference as being "[t]wo recent events [that] have revived the debate about whether criminal behaviour is genetically determined")
    • Kenan Malik, Refutation: No Such Thing as a Born Killer, Independent (London), Feb. 14, 1995, at 15 (describing the Mobley appeal and the Ciba conference as being "[t]wo recent events [that] have revived the debate about whether criminal behaviour is genetically determined");
    • (1995) Independent , pp. 15
    • Malik, K.1
  • 30
    • 33750142968 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Are Some People Born Criminal?
    • (U.K.), Aug. 2, (considering "whether there is such a thing as a 'criminal gene"' to be "one of the great debates of modern times")
    • Colin Wilson, Are Some People Born Criminal?, Daily Mail (U.K.), Aug. 2, 2002, at 12 (considering "whether there is such a thing as a 'criminal gene"' to be "one of the great debates of modern times");
    • (2002) Daily Mail , pp. 12
    • Wilson, C.1
  • 31
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See also in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) (citing articles discussing the controversy surrounding the Mobley case)
    • see also Denno, supra note 2, at 251-53 (citing articles discussing the controversy surrounding the Mobley case).
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251-253
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 32
    • 33750133157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Ciba Foundation is a scientific organization now called the Novartis Foundation. Information on Novartis Foundation Symposia can be found at (last visited Sept. 1). For purposes of clarity, this article continues to refer to the Ciba Foundation in the context of discussions about the Ciba conference
    • The Ciba Foundation is a scientific organization now called the Novartis Foundation. Information on Novartis Foundation Symposia can be found at http://www.novartisfound.org.uk/symp.htm (last visited Sept. 1, 2005). For purposes of clarity, this article continues to refer to the Ciba Foundation in the context of discussions about the Ciba conference.
    • (2005)
  • 33
    • 33750095115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contents
    • The three-day Ciba Foundation symposium was held on February 14-16, 1995. in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • The three-day Ciba Foundation symposium was held on February 14-16, 1995. Contents, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour, supra note 2, at v.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour
  • 34
    • 33750095115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contents
    • The papers presented at the symposium were published in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour. The three-day Ciba Foundation symposium was held on February 14-16, 1995. in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • The papers presented at the symposium were published in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour. Id.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour
  • 35
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • For the purposes of the symposium, I wrote a chapter about the Mobley case. See in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • For the purposes of the symposium, I wrote a chapter about the Mobley case. See Denno, supra note 2, at 248.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 36
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • See Denno, supra note 2, at 248.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 37
    • 33750104996 scopus 로고
    • Controversial Search for the Criminal Gene: A Conference the Americans Would not Allow
    • For further descriptions of the debates surrounding the issue of genetics and crime outside the context of the Mobley case but in the wake of the Ciba conference on the Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour, see (U.K.), Feb. 14, ("Ten of the 13 speakers [at the Ciba conference] are from the US, where criminal genetics is a particularly controversial issue")
    • For further descriptions of the debates surrounding the issue of genetics and crime outside the context of the Mobley case but in the wake of the Ciba conference on the Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour, see Clive Cookson, Controversial Search for the Criminal Gene: A Conference the Americans Would not Allow, Fin. Times (U.K.), Feb. 14, 1995, at 8 ("Ten of the 13 speakers [at the Ciba conference] are from the US, where criminal genetics is a particularly controversial issue.");
    • (1995) Fin. Times , pp. 8
    • Cookson, C.1
  • 38
    • 33750141651 scopus 로고
    • Perspective: An Inside Job Or A Set-Up?
    • Feb. 10, ("[W]hat appears to be pretty much an open and shut case - even Mobeley [sic] has never denied his guilt - has been catapulted on to the battlefield of a fierce worldwide debate.") (exploring opposing viewpoints on the connections between genes and crime and the implications of such on the legal system)
    • Patel et al., supra note 3, at 16 (exploring opposing viewpoints on the connections between genes and crime and the implications of such on the legal system);
    • (1995) Times Higher Educ. Supplement , pp. 16
    • Patel, K.1
  • 39
    • 33750122561 scopus 로고
    • Researchers See Gene Link to Violence but Are Wary
    • Feb. 19, ("Researchers [at the Ciba symposium] said ... there was tentative but growing evidence of a genetic basis for some criminal and aggressive behavior. But clearly mindful of the controversy on this issue, most ... emphasized that the 'nature versus nurture' debate was not an either-or proposition in this case")
    • Richard W. Stevenson, Researchers See Gene Link to Violence but Are Wary, N.Y. Times, Feb. 19, 1995, at 29 ("Researchers [at the Ciba symposium] said ... there was tentative but growing evidence of a genetic basis for some criminal and aggressive behavior. But clearly mindful of the controversy on this issue, most ... emphasized that the 'nature versus nurture' debate was not an either-or proposition in this case.");
    • (1995) N.Y. Times , pp. 29
    • Stevenson, R.W.1
  • 40
    • 33750132206 scopus 로고
    • Genes Link to Violence and Crime Condemned
    • (London), Feb. 15, HOME, (noting that the controversy surrounding the issues discussed at the Ciba symposium had "now reached the European Parliament")
    • Tom Wilkie, Genes Link to Violence and Crime Condemned, Indep. (London), Feb. 15, 1995, HOME, at 2 (noting that the controversy surrounding the issues discussed at the Ciba symposium had "now reached the European Parliament").
    • (1995) Indep. , pp. 2
    • Wilkie, T.1
  • 41
    • 33750104730 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra
    • See infra Part III.
    • , Issue.PART III
  • 42
    • 33750137001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Participants
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Participants, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour, supra note 2, at vii.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour
  • 43
    • 33750104209 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crime Causation: Biological Theories
    • in 292, (Joshua Dressler et al. eds., 2d ed.)
    • Jasmine A. Tehrani & Sarnoff A. Mednick, Crime Causation: Biological Theories, in 1 Encyclopedia of Crime & Justice 292, 292 (Joshua Dressler et al. eds., 2d ed. 2002).
    • (2002) Encyclopedia of Crime & Justice , vol.1 , pp. 292
    • Tehrani, J.A.1    Mednick, S.A.2
  • 46
    • 84937319512 scopus 로고
    • Gender, Crime, and the Criminal Law Defenses
    • See 80, (examining a broad range of statistics on sex differences in crime)
    • See Deborah W. Denno, Gender, Crime, and the Criminal Law Defenses, 85 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 80, 80-180 (1994) (examining a broad range of statistics on sex differences in crime).
    • (1994) J. Crim. L. & Criminology , vol.85 , pp. 80-180
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 47
    • 84937319512 scopus 로고
    • Gender, Crime, and the Criminal Law Defenses
    • See 80, (examining a broad range of statistics on sex differences in crime)
    • See id.
    • (1994) J. Crim. L. & Criminology , vol.85 , pp. 80-180
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 48
    • 0003891774 scopus 로고
    • See (detailing a large longitudinal study of various biological and sociological predictors of sex differences in crime)
    • See Deborah W. Denno, Biology and Violence: From Birth to Adulthood 7-28 (1990) (detailing a large longitudinal study of various biological and sociological predictors of sex differences in crime).
    • (1990) Biology and Violence: From Birth to Adulthood , pp. 7-28
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 50
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 254;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 254
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 51
    • 33750131967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nature, Nurture, the "Criminal Gene" - What Makes Men Violent?
    • see also May 9, ("After [Mobley] was sentenced to death, his lawyers won an appeal. They argued that he was not acting on the basis of 'free will' but due to a genetic predilection. Virtually his entire family, they said, were violent") (referring to a "criminal gene" in the title of a news article about the Mobley case)
    • see also Holmquist, supra note 2 (referring to a "criminal gene" in the title of a news article about the Mobley case);
    • (1996) Irish Times , pp. 12
    • Holmquist, K.1
  • 52
    • 33750093740 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Freedom Is a Better Bet than the Gene Genie
    • (U.K.), Oct. 6, ("Generations of Mobleys, starting with [Stephen's] great-grandfather, had been antisocial and violent, and his lawyers tried to argue that he was hard-wired to be bad.") ("[Mobley's] lawyers tried to argue that [Mobley] was hard-wired to be bad")
    • Marrin, supra note 2 ("[Mobley's] lawyers tried to argue that [Mobley] was hard-wired to be bad.").
    • (2002) Sun. Times
    • Marrin, M.1
  • 54
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 254;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 254
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 55
    • 33645864065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence from Behavioral-Genetic Research
    • see also in 41, (Jeffrey C. Hall ed.) (analyzing the interaction between genes and the environment with respect to antisocial behavior)
    • see also Terrie E. Moffitt, Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence from Behavioral-Genetic Research, in 55 Advances in Genetics 41, 41-104 (Jeffrey C. Hall ed., 2005) (analyzing the interaction between genes and the environment with respect to antisocial behavior).
    • (2005) Advances in Genetics , vol.55 , pp. 41-104
    • Moffitt, T.E.1
  • 57
    • 17044376351 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Law and Behavioral Biology
    • For an excellent discussion and analysis of these issues, see
    • For an excellent discussion and analysis of these issues, see Owen D. Jones & Timothy H. Goldsmith, Law and Behavioral Biology, 105 Colum. L. Rev. 405 (2005).
    • (2005) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.105 , pp. 405
    • Jones, O.D.1    Goldsmith, T.H.2
  • 58
    • 33750093736 scopus 로고
    • Mobley v. State
    • 150, (Ga.)
    • Mobley v. State, 426 S.E.2d 150, 151 (Ga. 1993);
    • (1993) S.E.2d , vol.426 , pp. 151
  • 59
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • Mobley v. State
    • 61, (Ga.)
    • Mobley v. State, 455 S.E.2d 61, 65 (Ga. 1995);
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 65
  • 60
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • 458, (Ga.)
    • Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 461 (Ga. 1998);
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 461
  • 61
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 62
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463;
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 63
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • see and accompanying text
    • see infra note 38 and accompanying text.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 64
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 65
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 66
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Id.;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 67
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463-64.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463-464
  • 68
    • 33750107524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 464.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 464
  • 69
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Id. at 463.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 70
    • 33750122808 scopus 로고
    • Pull the Trigger
    • Journalist Tom Junod depicted Mobley's comfortable childhood in blunter terms: Deprivation? Want? Hey, they may explain your typical murderer, your average everyday ghetto shooter, but they sure ... don't explain Tony Mobley. Nothing does. Sure, his father's hard and his mother harder; sure, they divorced when Tony was at a delicate age; sure, he resents ... his older sister. But please, Dr. Freud, you have to believe him: There is nothing any of them did - father, mother, sister, grandpa, grandma, maiden aunt - to deserve him. He didn't get beat, he didn't get [sexually abused]; no, beating and [sexual abuse], they were what he did, and that's how it has always been. July
    • Journalist Tom Junod depicted Mobley's comfortable childhood in blunter terms: Deprivation? Want? Hey, they may explain your typical murderer, your average everyday ghetto shooter, but they sure ... don't explain Tony Mobley. Nothing does. Sure, his father's hard and his mother harder; sure, they divorced when Tony was at a delicate age; sure, he resents ... his older sister. But please, Dr. Freud, you have to believe him: There is nothing any of them did - father, mother, sister, grandpa, grandma, maiden aunt - to deserve him. He didn't get beat, he didn't get [sexually abused]; no, beating and [sexual abuse], they were what he did, and that's how it has always been. Tom Junod, Pull the Trigger, Gentlemen's Q., July 1994, at 92-94.
    • (1994) Gentlemen's Q. , pp. 92-94
    • Junod, T.1
  • 71
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463-64;
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463-464
  • 72
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251-52;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251-252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 73
    • 10644262958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Use of Human Genome Research in Criminal Defense and Mitigation of Punishment
    • in 182, (Jeffrey R. Botkin et al. eds.)
    • Daniel A. Summer, The Use of Human Genome Research in Criminal Defense and Mitigation of Punishment, in Genetics and Criminality: The Potential Misuse of Scientific Information in Court 182, 189 (Jeffrey R. Botkin et al. eds., 1999).
    • (1999) Genetics and Criminality: The Potential Misuse of Scientific Information in Court , pp. 189
    • Summer, D.A.1
  • 74
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    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 76
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • see also (recognizing the lack of available mitigating evidence in Mobley's background)
    • see also Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463-66 (recognizing the lack of available mitigating evidence in Mobley's background).
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463-466
  • 77
    • 33750107188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 463-66.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463-466
  • 78
    • 33750131098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Id. at 465;
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 465
  • 79
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 80
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • At the time of her trial testimony, Joyce Ann went by the name of Joyce Ann Mobley Childers. in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • At the time of her trial testimony, Joyce Ann went by the name of Joyce Ann Mobley Childers. Denno, supra note 2, at 251.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 81
    • 33750131098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • The Turpin court, however, refers to her using two different last names: see
    • The Turpin court, however, refers to her using two different last names: Joyce Ann Elders, see Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 465,
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 465
    • Elders, J.A.1
  • 82
    • 33750115795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • and see (basically the name she used at trial). The court does not explain the discrepancy in names
    • and Joyce Ann Childers, see id. at 467 (basically the name she used at trial). The court does not explain the discrepancy in names.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 467
    • Childers, J.A.1
  • 83
    • 33750131098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 465.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 465
  • 84
    • 33750131098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Id.;
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 465
  • 85
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in & fig.1. (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251 & fig.1.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 86
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in & fig.1. (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251 & fig.1.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 87
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in & fig.1. (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Id.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 88
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in & fig.1. (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Id. at 252;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 90
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    • Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A
    • [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior]
    • H. G. Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A, 262 Science 578 (1993) [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior];
    • (1993) Science , vol.262 , pp. 578
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 91
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    • Behavioral Genetics and the Punishment of Crime
    • see also 25, (discussing the Brunner et al. study)
    • see also Paul S. Appelbaum, Behavioral Genetics and the Punishment of Crime, 56 Psych. Services 25, 25 (2005) (discussing the Brunner et al. study).
    • (2005) Psych. Services , vol.56 , pp. 25
    • Appelbaum, P.S.1
  • 92
    • 0030339587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • MAOA Deficiency and Abnormal Behaviour: Perspectives on an Association
    • For a general overview of the research, see in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) [hereinafter Brunner, MAOA Deficiency]
    • For a general overview of the research, see Han G. Brunner, MAOA Deficiency and Abnormal Behaviour: Perspectives on an Association, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour, supra note 2, at 155, 155-67 [hereinafter Brunner, MAOA Deficiency].
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 155-167
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 93
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    • Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A
    • For details on the studies, see [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior]
    • For details on the studies, see Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior, supra note 47;
    • (1993) Science , vol.262 , pp. 578
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 94
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    • X-Linked Borderline Mental Retardation with Prominent Behavioral Disturbance: Phenotype, Genetic Localization, and Evidence for Disturbed Monoamine Metabolism
    • (herinafter Brunner et al., X-Linked]
    • H. G. Brunner et al., X-Linked Borderline Mental Retardation with Prominent Behavioral Disturbance: Phenotype, Genetic Localization, and Evidence for Disturbed Monoamine Metabolism, 52 Am. J. Hum. Genetics 1032 (1993) (herinafter Brunner et al., X-Linked].
    • (1993) Am. J. Hum. Genetics , vol.52 , pp. 1032
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 95
    • 0000325435 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • MAOA Deficiency and Abnormal Behaviour: Perspectives on an Association
    • For a general overview of the research, see in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) [hereinafter Brunner, MAOA Deficiency]
    • Brunner, MAOA Deficiency, supra note 48, at 156.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 156
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 97
    • 0027370904 scopus 로고
    • X-Linked Borderline Mental Retardation with Prominent Behavioral Disturbance: Phenotype, Genetic Localization, and Evidence for Disturbed Monoamine Metabolism
    • (herinafter Brunner et al., X-Linked]
    • Brunner et al., X-Linked, supra note 48, at 1035.
    • (1993) Am. J. Hum. Genetics , vol.52 , pp. 1035
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 98
    • 0027442475 scopus 로고
    • Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A
    • [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior]
    • Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior, supra note 47, at 578-79.
    • (1993) Science , vol.262 , pp. 578-579
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 99
    • 0027442475 scopus 로고
    • Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A
    • [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior]
    • See id. at 578.
    • (1993) Science , vol.262 , pp. 578
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 100
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See generally in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 252.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 101
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • The co-author who volunteered to test Mobley was Xandra Breakefield. See generally in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • The co-author who volunteered to test Mobley was Xandra Breakefield. Id.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 102
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • The co-author who volunteered to test Mobley was Xandra Breakefield. See generally in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Id.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 103
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • 458, (Ga.)
    • Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 466 (Ga. 1998).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 466
  • 104
    • 33750110786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 8-11 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 8-11 and accompanying text.
  • 105
    • 33750142146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 12, 16 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 12, 16 and accompanying text.
  • 106
    • 33750104471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Typically, symposia at the Ciba Foundation do not involve topics that would interest nonscientists. See The Novartis Foundation, (last visited Sept. 25)
    • Typically, symposia at the Ciba Foundation do not involve topics that would interest nonscientists. See The Novartis Foundation, http://www.novartisfound.org.uk (last visited Sept. 25, 2005).
    • (2005)
  • 107
    • 33750104120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also supra note 16 and accompanying text
    • See also supra note 16 and accompanying text.
  • 108
    • 33750104121 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 46-47 and accompanying text. The MAOA deficiency issue has come about in other cases
    • See supra notes 46-47 and accompanying text. The MAOA deficiency issue has come about in other cases.
  • 109
    • 11844263335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Behavioral Genetics and the Punishment of Crime
    • see also 25, (discussing the Brunner et al. study)
    • See Appelbaum, supra note 47, at 25-27.
    • (2005) Psych. Services , vol.56 , pp. 25-27
    • Appelbaum, P.S.1
  • 110
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 252.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 111
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • 458, (Ga.) ("[P]sychological reports showed that Mobley had an average IQ .... Although some psychological reports early in Mobley's childhood suggested that he might have a learning disability or organic brain disorder, later reports found no evidence of either")
    • Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 463 (Ga. 1998) ("[P]sychological reports showed that Mobley had an average IQ .... Although some psychological reports early in Mobley's childhood suggested that he might have a learning disability or organic brain disorder, later reports found no evidence of either.").
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 112
    • 0027442475 scopus 로고
    • Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A
    • [hereinafter Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior]
    • Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior, supra note 47, at 578.
    • (1993) Science , vol.262 , pp. 578
    • Brunner, H.G.1
  • 113
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) & fig.1
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 251 & fig.1.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 251
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 114
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) & fig.1
    • Id. at 248.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 115
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) & fig.1
    • Id. at 252.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 116
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) & fig.1
    • Id. at 252-55.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 252-255
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 117
    • 0012492097 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It is beyond the scope of this article to analyze either the research or the publications examining the link between genetics and crime in legal cases. For a few overviews of this literature, see
    • It is beyond the scope of this article to analyze either the research or the publications examining the link between genetics and crime in legal cases. For a few overviews of this literature, see Carey, supra note 25;
    • (2003) Human Genetics for the Social Sciences , pp. 68
    • Carey, G.1
  • 118
    • 0030338366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248-264
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 120
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    • Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence from Behavioral-Genetic Research
    • in 41, (Jeffrey C. Hall ed.) (analyzing the interaction between genes and the environment with respect to antisocial behavior)
    • Moffitt, supra note 28;
    • (2005) Advances in Genetics , vol.55 , pp. 41-104
    • Moffitt, T.E.1
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    • Overcoming the Myth of Free Will in Criminal Law: The True Impact of the Genetic Revolution
    • see also 1031, (describing XYY Syndrome-related studies in the context of the early history of genetic defenses in criminal trials)
    • see also Matthew Jones, Overcoming the Myth of Free Will in Criminal Law: The True Impact of the Genetic Revolution, 52 Duke L.J. 1031, 1039-40 (2003) (describing XYY Syndrome-related studies in the context of the early history of genetic defenses in criminal trials).
    • (2003) Duke L.J. , vol.52 , pp. 1039-1040
    • Jones, M.1
  • 124
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    • Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence from Behavioral-Genetic Research
    • in (Jeffrey C. Hall ed.) (analyzing the interaction between genes and the environment with respect to antisocial behavior)
    • Moffitt, supra note 28, at 41-104;
    • (2005) Advances in Genetics , vol.55 , pp. 41-104
    • Moffitt, T.E.1
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    • The New Look of Behavioral Genetics in Developmental Psychopathology: Gene-Environment Interplay in Antisocial Behaviors
    • Terrie E. Moffitt, The New Look of Behavioral Genetics in Developmental Psychopathology: Gene-Environment Interplay in Antisocial Behaviors, 131 Psychol. Bulletin 533 (2005).
    • (2005) Psychol. Bulletin , vol.131 , pp. 533
    • Moffitt, T.E.1
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    • 33750141650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Of course, there are vastly different types of genetics evidence, ranging from family history to modern medical testing. It is artificial to aggregate all the research under one heading. This type of lumping also confuses debates about when and where the evidence should be appropriately applied. The umbrella heading of "genetics evidence" is used in this article, however, to make general points, while recognizing that the points made could differ in their accuracy depending on the type and quality of evidence being discussed.
  • 128
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 254;
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 254
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 129
    • 33750116058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also infra note 189 (describing the reactions to a 1995 University of Maryland conference on The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior, in which the public and some conference participants voiced many of these same five concerns)
    • see also infra note 189 (describing the reactions to a 1995 University of Maryland conference on The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior, in which the public and some conference participants voiced many of these same five concerns).
  • 131
    • 0000241420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • in (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases)
    • Denno, supra note 2, at 254.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 254
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 135
    • 33645864065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence from Behavioral-Genetic Research
    • in 41, (Jeffrey C. Hall ed.) (analyzing the interaction between genes and the environment with respect to antisocial behavior)
    • Moffitt, supra note 28.
    • (2005) Advances in Genetics , vol.55 , pp. 41-104
    • Moffitt, T.E.1
  • 136
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • Mobley
    • These cases, which are summarized in the Appendix and in Charts 1-3, infra, were compiled using legal research databases only. Other cases may exist in which genetic predisposition evidence was at issue or potentially could have been at issue; however, such cases were either not published or were not made known publicly in a way that made them readily verifiable. (A general internet search turned up references to cases in which genetics evidence was relevant; in most instances, however, efforts to locate such cases on Westlaw or LexisNexis were unsuccessful.) The twenty-seven cases discussed in this article also do not include (Ga.) which already has been examined in some detail, or other decisions in which genetics evidence may have been an issue in a context not relevant to this article
    • These cases, which are summarized in the Appendix and in Charts 1-3, infra, were compiled using legal research databases only. Other cases may exist in which genetic predisposition evidence was at issue or potentially could have been at issue; however, such cases were either not published or were not made known publicly in a way that made them readily verifiable. (A general internet search turned up references to cases in which genetics evidence was relevant; in most instances, however, efforts to locate such cases on Westlaw or LexisNexis were unsuccessful.) The twenty-seven cases discussed in this article also do not include Mobley, 455 S.E.2d 61 (Ga. 1995), which already has been examined in some detail, or other decisions in which genetics evidence may have been an issue in a context not relevant to this article.
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 61
  • 137
    • 33750111283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Rodriguez
    • For example, in (N.Y. Sup. Ct.) the New York Supreme Court held a defendant may be compelled to provide a blood sample for DNA testing so the defendant's DNA could be compared to DNA evidence from a crime scene
    • For example, in People v. Rodriguez, 764 N.Y.S.2d 305 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 2003), the New York Supreme Court held a defendant may be compelled to provide a blood sample for DNA testing so the defendant's DNA could be compared to DNA evidence from a crime scene.
    • (2003) N.Y.S.2d , vol.764 , pp. 305
  • 138
    • 33750111283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Rodriguez
    • For example, in (N.Y. Sup. Ct.) the New York Supreme Court held a defendant may be compelled to provide a blood sample for DNA testing so the defendant's DNA could be compared to DNA evidence from a crime scene
    • Id. at 311-15.
    • (2003) N.Y.S.2d , vol.764 , pp. 311-315
  • 139
    • 33750111283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Rodriguez
    • The court ruled that the defendant's DNA could be used only for that criminal proceeding, however, and could not be placed into a DNA database for comparison with DNA evidence from other unsolved crimes. Results of DNA testing must be kept confidential - defendant has an "'exclusive property right' to control dissemination of his genetic makeup" For example, in (N.Y. Sup. Ct.) the New York Supreme Court held a defendant may be compelled to provide a blood sample for DNA testing so the defendant's DNA could be compared to DNA evidence from a crime scene
    • The court ruled that the defendant's DNA could be used only for that criminal proceeding, however, and could not be placed into a DNA database for comparison with DNA evidence from other unsolved crimes. Results of DNA testing must be kept confidential - defendant has an "'exclusive property right' to control dissemination of his genetic makeup." Id. at 311.
    • (2003) N.Y.S.2d , vol.764 , pp. 311
  • 140
    • 33750111283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Rodriguez
    • In essence, the opinion concerns privacy rights and DNA samples, as well as ways in which genetic material has been abused in the past For example, in (N.Y. Sup. Ct.) the New York Supreme Court held a defendant may be compelled to provide a blood sample for DNA testing so the defendant's DNA could be compared to DNA evidence from a crime scene
    • In essence, the opinion concerns privacy rights and DNA samples, as well as ways in which genetic material has been abused in the past. Id. at 307-15.
    • (2003) N.Y.S.2d , vol.764 , pp. 307-315
  • 141
    • 33750104119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra
    • See infra p. 239.
  • 142
    • 33750118039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra pp. 221, 223
    • See infra pp. 221, 223, 224.
  • 143
    • 33750137914 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dennis ex. rel. Butko v. Budge
    • See infra Chart 1 and app. In twenty-one of the twenty-seven examined cases, the defendant received the death penalty. See 880, (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied, stay denied, Dennis v. Budge, 542 U.S. 959 (2004)
    • See infra Chart 1 and app. In twenty-one of the twenty-seven examined cases, the defendant received the death penalty. See Dennis ex rel. Butko v. Budge, 378 F.3d 880, 882 (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied, stay denied, Dennis v. Budge, 542 U.S. 959 (2004);
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 882
  • 144
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • 1221, (9th Cir.) vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part
    • Landrigan v. Stewart, 272 F.3d 1221, 1223 (9th Cir. 2001), vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1223
  • 145
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006) (en banc);
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 146
    • 33750131963 scopus 로고
    • Hendricks v. Calderon
    • 929, (N.D. Cal.) aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032, 1035 (9th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 517 U.S. 1111 (1996)
    • Hendricks v. Calderon, 864 F. Supp. 929, 931 (N.D. Cal. 1994), aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032, 1035 (9th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 517 U.S. 1111 (1996);
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 931
  • 147
    • 33750108031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fudge v. State
    • 600, (Ark.)
    • Fudge v. State, 120 S.W.3d 600, 601 (Ark. 2003);
    • (2003) S.W.3d , vol.120 , pp. 601
  • 148
    • 33750104731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rogers v. State
    • 980, (Fla.)
    • Rogers v. State, 783 So. 2d 980, 980 (Fla. 2001);
    • (2001) So. 2d , vol.783 , pp. 980
  • 149
    • 33750133710 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Armstrong
    • 960, (III.)
    • People v. Armstrong, 700 N.E.2d 960, 963 (III. 1998);
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.700 , pp. 963
  • 150
    • 33750103020 scopus 로고
    • People v. Franklin
    • 750, (III.)
    • People v. Franklin, 656 N.E.2d 750, 750 (III. 1995);
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 750
  • 151
    • 33750106901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stevens v. State
    • 739, (Ind.)
    • Stevens v. State, 770 N.E.2d 739, 745 (Ind. 2002);
    • (2002) N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 745
  • 152
    • 33750128924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benefiel v. State
    • 906, (Ind.)
    • Benefiel v. State, 716 N.E.2d 906, 910 (Ind. 1999);
    • (1999) N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 910
  • 153
    • 33750130831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Manning
    • 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04)
    • State v. Manning, 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04);
  • 154
    • 33750100099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1044, cert. denied, Manning v. Louisiana, No. 04-8851, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 3059 (U.S. Apr. 4)
    • So. 2d 1044, 1057, cert. denied, Manning v. Louisiana, No. 04-8851, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 3059 (U.S. Apr. 4, 2005);
    • (2005) So. 2d , vol.885 , pp. 1057
  • 155
    • 33750113578 scopus 로고
    • Billiot v. State
    • 1, (Miss.)
    • Billiot v. State, 655 So. 2d 1, 2 (Miss. 1995);
    • (1995) So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 2
  • 156
    • 33750143770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Ferguson
    • 485, (Mo.)
    • State v. Ferguson, 20 S.W.3d 485, 485 (Mo. 2000);
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 485
  • 157
    • 33746229578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Timmendequas
    • 55, (N.J.)
    • State v. Timmendequas, 737 A.2d 55, 65-66 (N.J. 1999);
    • (1999) A.2d , vol.737 , pp. 65-66
  • 158
    • 33750120967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • 328, (N.C.)
    • State v. Hartman, 476 S.E.2d 328, 331 (N.C. 1996);
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 331
  • 159
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hughbanks
    • 2003-Ohio-4121
    • State v. Hughbanks, 99 Ohio St. 3d 365, 2003-Ohio-4121,
    • Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 160
    • 33750109999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • at ¶ 30
    • N.E.2d 1081, at ¶ 30;
    • N.E.2d , vol.792 , pp. 1081
  • 161
    • 33750111580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Spivey
    • 151, (Ohio)
    • State v. Spivey, 692 N.E.2d 151, 155 (Ohio 1998);
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 155
  • 162
    • 33750100920 scopus 로고
    • State v. Wilson
    • No. Civ.A. 92CA005396, 1994 WL 558568, at (Ohio Ct. App. Oct. 12)
    • State v. Wilson, No. Civ.A. 92CA005396, 1994 WL 558568, at *1 (Ohio Ct. App. Oct. 12, 1994);
    • (1994) , pp. 1
  • 163
    • 33750119655 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Von Dohlen v. State
    • 738, (S.C.) cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005)
    • Von Dohlen v. State, 602 S.E.2d 738, 740 (S.C. 2004), cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005);
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 740
  • 164
    • 33750120972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern v. State
    • 5711, (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Cauthern v. State, 145 S.W.3d 5711, 578 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2004);
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 578
  • 165
    • 33750113312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alley v. State
    • 138, (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Alley v. State, 958 S.W.2d 138, 140 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1997);
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 140
  • 166
    • 33750143244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hall v. State
    • 24, (Tex. Crim. App.) cert. denied, Hall v. Texas, No. 04-8762, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 5073 (U.S. June 27, 2005). In three cases, the defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment
    • Hall v. State, 160 S.W.3d 24, 26 (Tex. Crim. App. 2004), cert. denied, Hall v. Texas, No. 04-8762, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 5073 (U.S. June 27, 2005). In three cases, the defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment.
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 26
  • 167
    • 33750132363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis v. State
    • See No. M2003-00744-CCA-R3-PC, 2004 WL 253396, (Tenn. Crim. App. Feb. 11)
    • See Davis v. State, No. M2003-00744-CCA-R3-PC, 2004 WL 253396, at *1 (Tenn. Crim. App. Feb. 11, 2004);
    • (2004) , pp. 1
  • 168
    • 33750137027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Maraschiello
    • 586, (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • State v. Maraschiello, 88 S.W.3d 586, 590 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2000);
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 590
  • 169
    • 33750113309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Arausa
    • No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5) aff'd, Arausa v. State, No. 07-02-0396-CR, 2003 WL 21803322 (Tex. Ct. App. Aug. 6, 2003)
    • State v. Arausa, No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5, 2002), aff'd, Arausa v. State, No. 07-02-0396-CR, 2003 WL 21803322 (Tex. Ct. App. Aug. 6, 2003).
    • (2002)
  • 170
    • 33750094873 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. DeAngelo
    • In one case, the defendant was acquitted. No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, at *1 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • In one case, the defendant was acquitted. State v. DeAngelo, No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, at *1 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20, 2000).
    • (2000)
  • 171
    • 33750105001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Hammerli
    • In one case, the defendant was sentenced to thirty-five years of imprisonment. 452, (III. App. Ct.)
    • In one case, the defendant was sentenced to thirty-five years of imprisonment. People v. Hammerli, 662 N.E.2d 452, 452 (III. App. Ct. 1996).
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 452
  • 172
    • 33750133714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sanchez v. Ryan
    • Finally, in one case, the defendant's driving privileges remained suspended. 920, (III. App. Ct.)
    • Finally, in one case, the defendant's driving privileges remained suspended. Sanchez v. Ryan, 734 N.E.2d 920, 921 (III. App. Ct. 2000).
    • (2000) N.E.2d , vol.734 , pp. 921
  • 173
    • 33750095365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mitigation evidence can be introduced during the penalty phase of a death penalty case to support attorneys' explanations for why a defendant should not be executed
    • Mitigation evidence can be introduced during the penalty phase of a death penalty case to support attorneys' explanations for why a defendant should not be executed. Linda E. Carter & Ellen Kreitzberg, Understanding Capital Punishment Law 137 (2004).
    • (2004) Understanding Capital Punishment Law , pp. 137
    • Carter, L.E.1    Kreitzberg, E.2
  • 174
    • 33750095365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The evidence, which is typically introduced through the use of expert testimony, focuses on a potentially wide range of individualized circumstances - for example, that the defendant had no prior criminal record, came from an abusive home, is remorseful, will not be dangerous in the future, is young, has a mental disorder, or suffers from any one of various life circumstances Mitigation evidence can be introduced during the penalty phase of a death penalty case to support attorneys' explanations for why a defendant should not be executed
    • The evidence, which is typically introduced through the use of expert testimony, focuses on a potentially wide range of individualized circumstances - for example, that the defendant had no prior criminal record, came from an abusive home, is remorseful, will not be dangerous in the future, is young, has a mental disorder, or suffers from any one of various life circumstances. Id. at 137-38.
    • (2004) Understanding Capital Punishment Law , pp. 137-138
    • Carter, L.E.1    Kreitzberg, E.2
  • 175
    • 33750095365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although the Supreme Court permits substantial flexibility in the kind of evidence that can be admitted for mitigation purposes, the Court also allows states considerable discretion in how that evidence can be structured. The evidence, which is typically introduced through the use of expert testimony, focuses on a potentially wide range of individualized circumstances - for example, that the defendant had no prior criminal record, came from an abusive home, is remorseful, will not be dangerous in the future, is young, has a mental disorder, or suffers from any one of various life circumstances
    • Although the Supreme Court permits substantial flexibility in the kind of evidence that can be admitted for mitigation purposes, the Court also allows states considerable discretion in how that evidence can be structured. Id.
    • (2004) Understanding Capital Punishment Law , pp. 137-138
    • Carter, L.E.1    Kreitzberg, E.2
  • 176
    • 33750095365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A substantial case law and literature on this topic are discussed in detail elsewhere. See generally (providing a general overview of the key cases and literature on mitigation evidence in death penalty cases) Although the Supreme Court permits substantial flexibility in the kind of evidence that can be admitted for mitigation purposes, the Court also allows states considerable discretion in how that evidence can be structured
    • substantial case law and literature on this topic are discussed in detail elsewhere. See generally id. at 137-56 (providing a general overview of the key cases and literature on mitigation evidence in death penalty cases).
    • (2004) Understanding Capital Punishment Law , pp. 137-156
    • Carter, L.E.1    Kreitzberg, E.2
  • 177
    • 33750134839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dennis ex rel. Butko
    • See infra Chart 2 and app. Genetics evidence has been used to validate the existence of a wide range of serious conditions. (Berzon, J., concurring) (mental illness)
    • See infra Chart 2 and app. Genetics evidence has been used to validate the existence of a wide range of serious conditions. See Dennis ex rel. Butko, 378 F.3d at 895 (Berzon, J., concurring) (mental illness);
    • F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 895
  • 178
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • (predisposition towards violence)
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228-29 (predisposition towards violence);
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1228-1229
  • 179
    • 33750106642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hendricks
    • (mental illness)
    • Hendricks, 864 F. Supp. at 935 (mental illness);
    • F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 935
  • 180
    • 33750113308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fudge
    • (violence towards women)
    • Fudge, 120 S.W.3d at 602-03 (violence towards women);
    • S.W.3d , vol.120 , pp. 602-603
  • 181
    • 33750137022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DeAngelo
    • 2000 WL 973104, (bipolar disorder)
    • DeAngelo, 2000 WL 973104, at *6 (bipolar disorder);
  • 182
    • 33750097176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rogers
    • (porphyria)
    • Rogers, 783 So. 2d at 996 (porphyria);
    • So. 2d , vol.783 , pp. 996
  • 183
    • 33750116893 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong
    • (alcoholism)
    • Armstrong, 700 N.E.2d 970 (alcoholism);
    • N.E.2d , vol.700 , pp. 970
  • 184
    • 33750110789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Franklin
    • (mental illness, predisposition towards violence)
    • Franklin, 656 N.E.2d at 761 (mental illness, predisposition towards violence);
    • N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 761
  • 185
    • 33750107187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sanchez
    • (alcohol tolerance)
    • Sanchez, 734 N.E.2d at 922 (alcohol tolerance);
    • N.E.2d , vol.734 , pp. 922
  • 186
    • 33750098752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hammerli
    • (severe mood disorder)
    • Hammerli, 662 N.E.2d at 456 (severe mood disorder);
    • N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 456
  • 187
    • 33750128633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stevens
    • (dissociative disorder)
    • Stevens, 770 N.E.2d at 750 (dissociative disorder);
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 750
  • 188
    • 33750120211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benefiel
    • (schizotypal personality disorder)
    • Benefiel, 716 N.E.2d at 913 (schizotypal personality disorder);
    • N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 913
  • 189
    • 33750096371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Manning
    • 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04)
    • Manning, 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04);
  • 190
    • 33750110534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (alcoholism)
    • So. 2d at 1097 (alcoholism);
    • So. 2d , vol.885 , pp. 1097
  • 191
    • 33750108630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Billiot
    • (schizophrenia)
    • Billiot, 655 So. 2d at 8 (schizophrenia);
    • So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 8
  • 192
    • 33750121495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ferguson
    • (depression)
    • Ferguson, 20 S.W.3d at 509 (depression);
    • S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 509
  • 193
    • 33750111287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Timmendequas
    • (pedophilia)
    • Timmendequas, 737 A.2d at 71 (pedophilia);
    • A.2d , vol.737 , pp. 71
  • 194
    • 33750119937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hartman
    • (alcoholism)
    • Hartman, 476 S.E.2d at 342 (alcoholism);
    • S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 342
  • 195
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hughbanks
    • 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶ 11-3 (schizophrenia)
    • Hughbanks, 99 Ohio St. 3d 365, 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶ 11-3 (schizophrenia);
    • Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 196
    • 33750104124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Spivey
    • (extra Y chromosome)
    • Spivey, 692 N.E.2d at 165 (extra Y chromosome);
    • N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 197
    • 33750110537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilson
    • 1994 WL 558568, (alcoholism)
    • Wilson, 1994 WL 558568, at *43 (alcoholism);
  • 198
    • 33750112770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Von Dohlen
    • (depression, mental disorders)
    • Von Dohlen, 602 S.E.2d at 741-42 (depression, mental disorders);
    • S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 741-742
  • 199
    • 33750136743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern
    • (impulsive behavior)
    • Cauthern, 145 S.W.3d at 588 (impulsive behavior);
    • S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 588
  • 200
    • 33750123317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis
    • 2004 WL 253396, (depression, mental illness)
    • Davis, 2004 WL 253396, at *4 (depression, mental illness);
  • 201
    • 33750100915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maraschiello
    • (delusional disorder)
    • Maraschiello, 88 S.W.3d at 598 (delusional disorder);
    • S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 598
  • 202
    • 33750102225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alley
    • (physical abnormalities, neurosis, Multiple Personality Disorder)
    • Alley, 958 S.W.2d at 140-43 (physical abnormalities, neurosis, Multiple Personality Disorder);
    • S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 140-143
  • 203
    • 33750116330 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hall
    • (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome, Klinefelter's Syndrome, extra Y chromosome)
    • Hall, 160 S.W.3d at 32-33 (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome, Klinefelter's Syndrome, extra Y chromosome);
    • S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 32-33
  • 204
    • 33750100919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arausa
    • No. 07-020396-CR, 200-3 WL 21803322, (propensity of abused to become abusers)
    • Arausa, No. 07-020396-CR, 200-3 WL 21803322, at *4 (propensity of abused to become abusers).
  • 205
    • 33750137022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DeAngelo
    • See infra Chart 3 and app. Chart 3 illustrates the frequency with which defendants sought to admit different forms of genetics evidence. The total number will be more than the number of examined cases (twenty-seven), because in some cases the defense attempted to introduce more than one form. Defendants sought to admit expert testimony regarding a direct evaluation of the defendant in eleven instances. See 2000 WL 973104
    • See infra Chart 3 and app. Chart 3 illustrates the frequency with which defendants sought to admit different forms of genetics evidence. The total number will be more than the number of examined cases (twenty-seven), because in some cases the defense attempted to introduce more than one form. Defendants sought to admit expert testimony regarding a direct evaluation of the defendant in eleven instances. See DeAngelo, 2000 WL 973104, at *6;
  • 206
    • 33750114033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rogers
    • Rogers, 783 So. 2d at 995;
    • So. 2d , vol.783 , pp. 995
  • 207
    • 33750098752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hammerli
    • Hammerli, 662 N.E.2d at 456;
    • N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 456
  • 208
    • 33750128633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stevens
    • Stevens, 770 N.E.2d at 750;
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 750
  • 209
    • 33750123865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Manning
    • 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04)
    • Manning, 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04);
  • 210
    • 33750110534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • So. 2d at 1097;
    • So. 2d , vol.885 , pp. 1097
  • 211
    • 33750108630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Billiot
    • Billiot, 655 So. 2d at 8;
    • So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 8
  • 212
    • 33750111287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Timmendequas
    • Timmendequas, 737 A.2d at 71;
    • A.2d , vol.737 , pp. 71
  • 213
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hughbanks
    • 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶ 113
    • Hughbanks, 99 Ohio St. 3d 365, 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶ 113;
    • Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 214
    • 33750104124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Spivey
    • Spivey, 692 N.E.2d at 165;
    • N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 215
    • 33750102225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alley
    • Alley, 958 S.W.2d at 140-43;
    • S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 140-143
  • 216
    • 33750116330 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hall
    • Defendants also attempted to introduce evidence regarding their family histories in eleven instances
    • Hall, 160 S.W.3d at 32-33. Defendants also attempted to introduce evidence regarding their family histories in eleven instances.
    • S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 32-33
  • 217
    • 33750106642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hendricks
    • See Hendricks, 864 F. Supp. at 935;
    • F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 935
  • 218
    • 33750114033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rogers
    • Rogers, 783 So. 2d at 995;
    • So. 2d , vol.783 , pp. 995
  • 219
    • 33750116893 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong
    • Armstrong, 700 N.E.2d at 970;
    • N.E.2d , vol.700 , pp. 970
  • 220
    • 33750110789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Franklin
    • Franklin, 656 N.E.2d at 761;
    • N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 761
  • 221
    • 33750107187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sanchez
    • Sanchez, 734 N.E.2d at 922-23;
    • N.E.2d , vol.734 , pp. 922-923
  • 222
    • 33750120211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benefiel
    • Benefiel, 716 N.E.2d at 913;
    • N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 913
  • 223
    • 33750119937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hartman
    • Hartman, 476 S.E.2d at 342;
    • S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 342
  • 224
    • 33750131099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilson
    • *1994 WL 558568
    • Wilson, 1994 WL 558568, at *43;
  • 225
    • 33750136743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern
    • Cauthern, 145 S.W.3d at 588;
    • S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 588
  • 226
    • 33750120491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis
    • 2004 WL 253396
    • Davis, 2004 WL 253396, at *4;
  • 227
    • 33750100915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maraschiello
    • Defendants attempted to introduce evidence regarding their behavioral histories twice
    • Maraschiello, 88 S.W.3d at 598. Defendants attempted to introduce evidence regarding their behavioral histories twice.
    • S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 598
  • 228
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • See Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228-29;
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1228-1229
  • 229
    • 33750121495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ferguson
    • Defendants also attempted to introduce their medical records in two instances
    • Ferguson, 20 S.W.3d at 509. Defendants also attempted to introduce their medical records in two instances.
    • S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 509
  • 230
    • 33750120211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benefiel
    • See Benefiel, 716 N.E.2d at 913;
    • N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 913
  • 231
    • 33750112770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Von Dohlen
    • One defendant attempted to introduce medical studies as evidence
    • Von Dohlen, 602 S.E.2d at 741-42. One defendant attempted to introduce medical studies as evidence.
    • S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 741-742
  • 232
    • 33750102224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arausa
    • See 2003 WL 21803322, One case did not describe the nature of the evidence sought to be introduced
    • See Arausa, 2003 WL 21803322, at *4. One case did not describe the nature of the evidence sought to be introduced.
  • 233
    • 33750108031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fudge
    • See Finally, one case examined did not involve the introduction of genetics evidence, genetics being mentioned only in passing
    • See Fudge, 120 S.W.3d 600. Finally, one case examined did not involve the introduction of genetics evidence, genetics being mentioned only in passing.
    • S.W.3d , vol.120 , pp. 600
  • 234
    • 33750134839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dennis ex rel. Butko
    • See (Berzon, J., concurring)
    • See Dennis ex rel. Butko, 378 F.3d at 895 (Berzon, J., concurring).
    • F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 895
  • 235
    • 33750118603 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commentary
    • For further discussion of the tendency of individuals to overplay the powerful effect of biology on behavior, see in 175, (Susan Guarino-Ghezzi & A. Javier Treviño eds.)
    • For further discussion of the tendency of individuals to overplay the powerful effect of biology on behavior, see Deborah W. Denno, Commentary, in Understanding Crime: A Multidisciplinary Approach 175, 175-80 (Susan Guarino-Ghezzi & A. Javier Treviño eds., 2005).
    • (2005) Understanding Crime: A Multidisciplinary Approach , pp. 175-180
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 236
    • 33750137022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DeAngelo
    • 2000 WL 973104
    • DeAngelo, 2000 WL 973104, at ↑;
  • 237
    • 33750114579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rogers
    • Rogers, 783 So. 2d at 997;
    • 2d So. , vol.783 , pp. 997
  • 238
    • 33750107527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Manning
    • 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04)
    • Manning, 03-1982 (La. 10/19/04);
  • 239
    • 33750110534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • So. 2d at 1097;
    • So. 2d , vol.885 , pp. 1097
  • 240
    • 33750111287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Timmendequas
    • Timmendequas, 737 A.2d at 71;
    • A.2d , vol.737 , pp. 71
  • 241
    • 33750122564 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilson
    • 1994 WL 558568
    • Wilson, 1994 WL 558568, at *43;
  • 242
    • 33750100663 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis
    • 2004 WL 253396
    • Davis, 2004 WL 253396, at 4;
  • 243
    • 33750100915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maraschiello
    • Although these cases reference genetics evidence only in passing, some of the cases are relevant nonetheless to discussions that appear elsewhere in this article's analysis
    • Maraschiello, 88 S.W.3d at 598. Although these cases reference genetics evidence only in passing, some of the cases are relevant nonetheless to discussions that appear elsewhere in this article's analysis.
    • S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 598
  • 244
    • 33750111980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.E.2d at 739.
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 739
  • 245
    • 33750127860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 754.
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 754
  • 246
    • 33750093739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 755.
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 755
  • 247
    • 33750111980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stevens v. State
    • may be seen as implicit approval of a genetics defense because the court did not consider a defense theory partially based on genetics evidence to constitute ineffective assistance of counsel. Yet the theory was obviously considered unsuccessful, nonetheless
    • Stevens v. State, 770 N.E.2d at 739, may be seen as implicit approval of a genetics defense because the court did not consider a defense theory partially based on genetics evidence to constitute ineffective assistance of counsel. Yet the theory was obviously considered unsuccessful, nonetheless.
    • N.E.2d , vol.770 , pp. 739
  • 248
    • 33750101455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (S.C.) cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005)
    • S.E.2d 738 (S.C. 2004), cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005).
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 738
  • 249
    • 33750121767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (S.C.) cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005)
    • Id. at 746.
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 746
  • 250
    • 33750115012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (S.C.) cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005)
    • Id. at 741.
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 741
  • 251
    • 33750112770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (S.C.) cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005)
    • Id. at 741-42.
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 741-742
  • 252
    • 33750143770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Mo.)
    • S.W.3d 485 (Mo. 2000).
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 485
  • 253
    • 33750141396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Mo.)
    • Id. at 509.
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 509
  • 254
    • 33750141396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Mo.)
    • Id.
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 509
  • 255
    • 33750113582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ind.)
    • N.E.2d 906 (Ind. 1999).
    • (1999) N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 906
  • 256
    • 33750095862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ind.)
    • Id. at 913.
    • (1999) N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 913
  • 257
    • 33750095862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ind.)
    • Id.
    • (1999) N.E.2d , vol.716 , pp. 913
  • 258
    • 33750103020 scopus 로고
    • (III.)
    • N.E.2d 750 (III. 1995).
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 750
  • 259
    • 33750093489 scopus 로고
    • (III.)
    • Id. at 761.
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 761
  • 260
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1221 (9th Cir.) vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005)
    • F.3d 1221, 1221 (9th Cir. 2001), vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005).
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 261
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • The Ninth Circuit recently issued an order on this case. (9th Cir.) (en banc)(affirming in part and reversing in part district court's denial of a capital habeas petition because defendant demonstrated colorable claim of ineffective assistance of counsel during penalty phase based on counsel's failure to investigate and present mitigating evidence including defendant's family history and mental illness, which could have resulted in a sentence other than death)
    • The Ninth Circuit recently issued an order on this case. Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006)(en banc)(affirming in part and reversing in part district court's denial of a capital habeas petition because defendant demonstrated colorable claim of ineffective assistance of counsel during penalty phase based on counsel's failure to investigate and present mitigating evidence including defendant's family history and mental illness, which could have resulted in a sentence other than death).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 262
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1228
  • 263
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Id. at 1228 n.4
    • F.3d , vol.272 , Issue.4 , pp. 1228
  • 264
    • 33750051176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • (citing 458, (Ga.)
    • (citing Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 458 (Ga. 1998)).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 458
  • 265
    • 33750108303 scopus 로고
    • State v. Landrigan
    • 111, (Ariz.)
    • State v. Landrigan, 859 P.2d 111, 112 (Ariz. 1993).
    • (1993) P.2d , vol.859 , pp. 112
  • 266
    • 33750104211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin
    • Turpin, 502 S.E.2d at 460.
    • S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 460
  • 267
    • 33750135382 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 859 P.2d at 118.
    • P.2d , vol.859 , pp. 118
  • 268
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1223.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1223
  • 269
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • According to an amended brief filed on January 8, 2001, mitigating factors would have included evidence that "[Landrigan's] brain does not work the way it is supposed to due to genetics and in utero exposure to alcohol and other toxic substances." Corrected Brief of Appellant at 22, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Corrected Brief of Appellant]. This condition "was exacerbated due to abandonment and other emotional detachments that [Landrigan] experienced when he was a baby, as well as substance abuse as a youth and as an adult"
    • According to an amended brief filed on January 8, 2001, mitigating factors would have included evidence that "[Landrigan's] brain does not work the way it is supposed to due to genetics and in utero exposure to alcohol and other toxic substances." Corrected Brief of Appellant at 22, Landrigan v. Stewart, 272 F.3d 1221 (9th Cir. 2001) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Corrected Brief of Appellant]. This condition "was exacerbated due to abandonment and other emotional detachments that [Landrigan] experienced when he was a baby, as well as substance abuse as a youth and as an adult."
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 270
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • According to an amended brief filed on January 8, 2001, mitigating factors would have included evidence that "[Landrigan's] brain does not work the way it is supposed to due to genetics and in utero exposure to alcohol and other toxic substances." Corrected Brief of Appellant at 22, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Corrected Brief of Appellant]. This condition "was exacerbated due to abandonment and other emotional detachments that [Landrigan] experienced when he was a baby, as well as substance abuse as a youth and as an adult"
    • Id.
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 271
    • 33750106370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1225.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1225
  • 272
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Id. at 1228.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1228
  • 273
    • 33750103024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Corrected Brief of Appellant
    • Landrigan's counsel on appeal argued that trial counsel made only a minimal effort to gather mitigating evidence, and that "all the signals were there ... to recognize [Landrigan's brain dysfunction], conduct an investigation ... and present it to the court at the sentencing hearing"
    • Corrected Brief of Appellant, at 61. Landrigan's counsel on appeal argued that trial counsel made only a minimal effort to gather mitigating evidence, and that "all the signals were there ... to recognize [Landrigan's brain dysfunction], conduct an investigation ... and present it to the court at the sentencing hearing."
  • 274
    • 33750103024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Corrected Brief of Appellant
    • Landrigan's counsel on appeal argued that trial counsel made only a minimal effort to gather mitigating evidence, and that "all the signals were there ... to recognize [Landrigan's brain dysfunction], conduct an investigation ... and present it to the court at the sentencing hearing"
    • Id.
  • 275
    • 33750103024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Corrected Brief of Appellant
    • Landrigan's counsel on appeal argued that trial counsel made only a minimal effort to gather mitigating evidence, and that "all the signals were there ... to recognize [Landrigan's brain dysfunction], conduct an investigation ... and present it to the court at the sentencing hearing"
    • Id.
  • 276
    • 33750114308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (11th Cir.)
    • F.3d 1312 (11th Cir. 2001).
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.267 , pp. 1312
  • 277
    • 33750051176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ga.)
    • S.E.2d 458 (Ga. 1998).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 458
  • 278
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228 n.4.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , Issue.4 , pp. 1228
  • 279
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Landrigan refuted the panel's reliance on the Mobley cases in a subsequent supplemental brief. Supplemental Brief of Petitioner-Appellant at 2, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011). Citing a wide range of research for support, the brief emphasized that Landrigan's genetic predisposition does not render violent behavior a certainty, but simply indicates a higher risk for antisocial tendencies
    • Landrigan refuted the panel's reliance on the Mobley cases in a subsequent supplemental brief. Supplemental Brief of Petitioner-Appellant at 2, Landrigan v. Stewart, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005) (No. 00-99011). Citing a wide range of research for support, the brief emphasized that Landrigan's genetic predisposition does not render violent behavior a certainty, but simply indicates a higher risk for antisocial tendencies.
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 280
    • 33750132879 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Landrigan refuted the panel's reliance on the Mobley cases in a subsequent supplemental brief. Supplemental Brief of Petitioner-Appellant at 2, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011). Citing a wide range of research for support, the brief emphasized that Landrigan's genetic predisposition does not render violent behavior a certainty, but simply indicates a higher risk for antisocial tendencies
    • Id. at 1.
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1
  • 281
    • 33750118607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1229.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1229
  • 282
    • 33750118607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Id.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1229
  • 283
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition for Panel Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc at 3, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Petitioner-Appellant's Petition]
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition for Panel Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc at 3, Landrigan v. Stewart, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Petitioner-Appellant's Petition].
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 284
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition for Panel Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc at 3, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011) [hereinafter Petitioner-Appellant's Petition]
    • Id.
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 285
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Respondents-Appellees argued, however, that the appellate court properly limited its consideration of mitigating factors to genetics evidence, since it was the only evidence presented to the state court in support of Landrigan's ineffective assistance of counsel claim during the first post-conviction relief proceeding. Respondents-Appellees' Supplemental Brief at 7-10, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011)
    • Respondents-Appellees argued, however, that the appellate court properly limited its consideration of mitigating factors to genetics evidence, since it was the only evidence presented to the state court in support of Landrigan's ineffective assistance of counsel claim during the first post-conviction relief proceeding. Respondents-Appellees' Supplemental Brief at 7-10, Landrigan v. Stewart, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005) (No. 00-99011).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 286
    • 33750116895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Eastlack
    • No. CR-28677 (Ariz. Sup. Ct. Apr. 11)
    • State v. Eastlack, No. CR-28677 (Ariz. Sup. Ct. Apr. 11, 1997).
    • (1997)
  • 287
    • 33750139315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition
    • In further support of this assertion, appellant's counsel submitted a supplemental letter calling the court's attention to recent scholarship related to the use of biopsychosocial research in the legal system
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition, at 13. In further support of this assertion, appellant's counsel submitted a supplemental letter calling the court's attention to recent scholarship related to the use of biopsychosocial research in the legal system.
  • 288
    • 33750135109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Tear in the Eye of the Law: Mitigating Factors and the Progression Toward a Disease Theory of Criminal Justice
    • Jeffrey L. Kirchmeier, A Tear in the Eye of the Law: Mitigating Factors and the Progression Toward a Disease Theory of Criminal Justice, 83 Or. L. Rev. 631 (2004).
    • (2004) Or. L. Rev. , vol.83 , pp. 631
    • Kirchmeier, J.L.1
  • 289
    • 33750139315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition, at 14-15.
  • 290
    • 33750139315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Petitioner-Appellant's Petition
    • Id. at 16.
  • 291
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • Attorneys for the appellee responded by arguing that the appellate court did not present the genetic predisposition as evidence of future dangerousness, but simply indicated it was unlikely to have affected the outcome of the trial. Respondents-Appellees' Response to Petitioner-Appellant's Petition for Panel Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc at 13, (9th Cir.) (No. 00-99011)
    • Attorneys for the appellee responded by arguing that the appellate court did not present the genetic predisposition as evidence of future dangerousness, but simply indicated it was unlikely to have affected the outcome of the trial. Respondents-Appellees' Response to Petitioner-Appellant's Petition for Panel Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc at 13, Landrigan v. Stewart, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005) (No. 00-99011).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 292
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • 1235, (9th Cir.)
    • Landrigan v. Stewart, 397 F.3d 1235, 1235 (9th Cir. 2005).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 293
    • 33750104733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part V
    • See infra Part V.
  • 294
    • 33750100916 scopus 로고
    • (N.D. Cal.) aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995)
    • F. Supp. 929 (N.D. Cal. 1994), aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995).
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 929
  • 295
    • 33750092943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The court rejected the defendant's claim that his counsel was ineffective for failing to present this same evidence during the guilt phase
    • F.3d at 1045. The court rejected the defendant's claim that his counsel was ineffective for failing to present this same evidence during the guilt phase.
    • F.3d , vol.70 , pp. 1045
  • 296
    • 33750092943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The court rejected the defendant's claim that his counsel was ineffective for failing to present this same evidence during the guilt phase
    • Id.
    • F.3d , vol.70 , pp. 1045
  • 297
    • 33750092943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The court rejected the defendant's claim that his counsel was ineffective for failing to present this same evidence during the guilt phase
    • Id.
    • F.3d , vol.70 , pp. 1045
  • 298
    • 33750129741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • The reasoning in Hendricks markedly contrasts with the arguments presented in (N.C.)
    • The reasoning in Hendricks markedly contrasts with the arguments presented in State v. Hartman, 476 S.E.2d 328 (N.C. 1996).
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 328
  • 299
    • 33750130828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • Hartman argued the trial court's restructuring of his requested jury instruction regarding his family history of alcoholism prevented the jury from considering relevant mitigating evidence - specifically, Hartman's genetic predisposition to alcohol abuse
    • Hartman argued the trial court's restructuring of his requested jury instruction regarding his family history of alcoholism prevented the jury from considering relevant mitigating evidence - specifically, Hartman's genetic predisposition to alcohol abuse. Id. at 342.
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 342
  • 300
    • 33750130828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • The trial court instead submitted the following instruction: "'Consider whether the defendant is an alcoholic.'" (N.C.)
    • The trial court instead submitted the following instruction: "'Consider whether the defendant is an alcoholic.'" Id.
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 342
  • 301
    • 33750129741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • Stated this way, Hartman posited, the jury "'was more likely'" to view Hartman's alcoholism "'simply as weakness or unmitigated choice.'" (N.C.)
    • Stated this way, Hartman posited, the jury "'was more likely'" to view Hartman's alcoholism "'simply as weakness or unmitigated choice.'" Id.
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 328
  • 302
    • 33750129741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • The court rejected this argument, holding that a "catchall mitigating circumstance" instruction that had been submitted was sufficient to address any such concerns. (N.C.)
    • The court rejected this argument, holding that a "catchall mitigating circumstance" instruction that had been submitted was sufficient to address any such concerns. Id.
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 328
  • 303
    • 33750114307 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 571, (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • S.W.3d 571, 613 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2004).
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 613
  • 304
    • 33750109156 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 571, (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 609.
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 609
  • 305
    • 33750141398 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • S.W.2d 138 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1997).
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 138
  • 306
    • 33750109716 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 149-50.
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 149-150
  • 307
    • 33750114578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 143.
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 143
  • 308
    • 33750114578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id.
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 143
  • 309
    • 33750100918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.) cert denied, stay denied
    • F.3d 880 (9th Cir. 2004), cert denied, stay denied,
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 880
  • 310
    • 33750123315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dennis v. Budge
    • Dennis v. Budge, 542 U.S. 959 (2004).
    • (2004) U.S. , vol.542 , pp. 959
  • 311
    • 33750134839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.) cert denied, stay denied
    • Id. at 895.
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 895
  • 312
    • 33750134839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.) cert denied, stay denied
    • Id.
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 895
  • 313
    • 0030338366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See generally in 248, (Gregory Bock & Jamie Goode eds.) (presented at the 1995 Ciba Foundation Symposium 194) (discussing the Mobley case in light of historical and contemporary arguments concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal law cases) for an overview of some of these challenges
    • See generally Denno, supra note 2, for an overview of some of these challenges.
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248-264
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 314
    • 33750129201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See supra Chart 2; infra app. These types of mitigating factors include predispositions to alcoholism, depression, impulsive behavior, violence, and aggression. See supra Chart 2 and supra note 71 (discussing the different types of genetics evidence). The conditions range from the specific (such as XXY Syndrome, porphyria, and bipolar disorder) to the general (for example, mental disorders, personality disorders, mood disorders, and "genetic defects"). See supra Chart 2 and supra note 81 (listing the ways genetics evidence validates the existence of serious conditions).
  • 315
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • See, e.g., (9th Cir.) vacated, reh'g en banc granted
    • See, e.g., Landrigan v. Stewart, 272 F.3d 1221 (9th Cir. 2001) vacated, reh'g en banc granted,
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 316
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.) aff'g in part, rev'g in part
    • F. 3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2005) F. 3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 317
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006) (en banc);
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 318
    • 33750100916 scopus 로고
    • Hendricks v. Calderon
    • (N.D. Cal.) aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995)
    • Hendricks v. Calderon, 864 F. Supp. 929 (N.D. Cal. 1994), aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995);
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 929
  • 319
    • 33750103020 scopus 로고
    • People v. Franklin
    • (III.)
    • People v. Franklin, 656 N.E.2d 750 (III. 1995);
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 750
  • 320
    • 33750133714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sanchez v. Ryan
    • (III. App. Ct.)
    • Sanchez v. Ryan, 734 N.E.2d 920 (III. App. Ct. 2000);
    • (2000) N.E.2d , vol.734 , pp. 920
  • 321
    • 33750129741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hartman
    • (N.C.)
    • State v. Hartman, 476 S.E.2d 328 (N.C. 1996);
    • (1996) S.E.2d , vol.476 , pp. 328
  • 322
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Hughbanks
    • Ohio-4121
    • State v. Hughbanks, 99 Ohio St. 3d 365, 2003-Ohio-4121,
    • (2003) Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 323
    • 33750109999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.E.2d 1081;
    • N.E.2d , vol.792 , pp. 1081
  • 324
    • 33750120972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern v. State
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Cauthern v. State, 145 S.W.3d 571 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2004);
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 571
  • 325
    • 33750132363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis v. State
    • No. M2003-00744-CCA-R3-PC, 2004 WL 253396 (Tenn. Crim. App. Feb. 11)
    • Davis v. State, No. M2003-00744-CCA-R3-PC, 2004 WL 253396 (Tenn. Crim. App. Feb. 11, 2004);
    • (2004)
  • 326
    • 33750097963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Maraschiello
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • State v. Maraschiello, 88 S.W.3d 586 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2000).
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 586
  • 327
    • 33750120490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern
    • Cauthern, 145 S.W.3d at 609.
    • S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 609
  • 328
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶¶ 136-37
    • Ohio St. 3d 365, 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶¶ 136-37.
    • Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 329
    • 33750140099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hughbanks
    • In 2003-Ohio-4121, 792 N.E.2d 1081, at ¶¶ 136-37 at ¶ 134, and at least two other cases
    • In Hughbanks, id. at ¶ 134, and at least two other cases,
    • Ohio St. 3d , vol.99 , pp. 365
  • 330
    • 33750111580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Spivey
    • (Ohio)
    • State v. Spivey, 692 N.E.2d 151 (Ohio 1998),
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 151
  • 331
    • 33750100920 scopus 로고
    • State v. Wilson
    • and No. Civ.A. 92CA005396, 1994 WL 558568 (Ohio Ct. App. Oct. 12) the courts did not expressly reject mitigating evidence regarding genetics, but held that the aggravating circumstances of the crime outweighed any mitigating factors. Family history was not specifically offered as proof of a genetics defense in Spivey and Wilson. Spivey involved a diagnosis of XYY Syndrome
    • and State v. Wilson, No. Civ.A. 92CA005396, 1994 WL 558568 (Ohio Ct. App. Oct. 12, 1994), the courts did not expressly reject mitigating evidence regarding genetics, but held that the aggravating circumstances of the crime outweighed any mitigating factors. Family history was not specifically offered as proof of a genetics defense in Spivey and Wilson. Spivey involved a diagnosis of XYY Syndrome.
    • (1994)
  • 332
    • 33750104124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A defense expert testified that although the syndrome itself does not cause aggression, the defendant's family environment exacerbated his condition and resulted in his criminal behavior
    • N.E.2d at 165. A defense expert testified that although the syndrome itself does not cause aggression, the defendant's family environment exacerbated his condition and resulted in his criminal behavior.
    • N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 333
    • 33750104124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilson merely listed the defendant's genetic predisposition to alcoholism among the mitigating factors presented during the penalty phase, and offered no further information concerning its origins
    • Id. Wilson merely listed the defendant's genetic predisposition to alcoholism among the mitigating factors presented during the penalty phase, and offered no further information concerning its origins.
    • N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 334
    • 33750101195 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1994 WL 558568, at *13 n.5
    • WL 558568, at *13 n.5.
  • 335
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228-29.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1228-1229
  • 336
    • 33750103020 scopus 로고
    • People v. Franklin
    • (Ill.)
    • People v. Franklin, 656 N.E.2d 750 (Ill. 1995).
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 750
  • 337
    • 33750118607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • The Franklin court further concluded the following: The proffered evidence regarding defendant's psychological problems and his family's violent and psychological history was not inherently mitigating. Although this evidence could have evoked compassion in the jurors, it could have also demonstrated defendant's potential for future dangerousness and the basis for defendant's past criminal acts. The evidence of defendant's mental illness may also have shown that defendant was less deterrable or that society needed to be protected from him
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1229. The Franklin court further concluded the following: The proffered evidence regarding defendant's psychological problems and his family's violent and psychological history was not inherently mitigating. Although this evidence could have evoked compassion in the jurors, it could have also demonstrated defendant's potential for future dangerousness and the basis for defendant's past criminal acts. The evidence of defendant's mental illness may also have shown that defendant was less deterrable or that society needed to be protected from him.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1229
  • 338
    • 33750110789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (citations omitted)
    • N.E.2d at 761 (citations omitted).
    • N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 761
  • 339
    • 33750137024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 122 and accompanying text for other commentary on the double-edged-sword dilemma in Landrigan; see infra Part V for further discussion of this issue in the context of additional conceptual problems with the genetics evidence cases
    • See supra note 122 and accompanying text for other commentary on the double-edged-sword dilemma in Landrigan; see infra Part V for further discussion of this issue in the context of additional conceptual problems with the genetics evidence cases.
  • 340
    • 33750113309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Arausa
    • *1 (Tex. App. Aug. 6, 2003), aff'g No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5)
    • *1 (Tex. App. Aug. 6, 2003), aff'g State v. Arausa, No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5, 2002).
    • (2002)
  • 341
    • 33750113309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Arausa
    • *2 (Tex. App. Aug. 6, 2003), aff'g No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5)
    • *2.
    • (2002)
  • 342
    • 33750113309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Arausa
    • *4 (Tex. App. Aug. 6, 2003) aff'g No. 2002-439113 (Dist. Ct. Lubbock County July 5)
    • *4.
    • (2002)
  • 343
    • 33750097963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • S.W.3d 586 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2000).
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 586
  • 344
    • 33750127857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 599.
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 599
  • 345
    • 33750137916 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 599-611.
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.88 , pp. 599-611
  • 346
    • 33750100916 scopus 로고
    • (N.D. Cal.) aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995)
    • F. Supp. 929 (N.D. Cal. 1994), aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995).
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 929
  • 347
    • 33750111052 scopus 로고
    • (N.D. Cal.) aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995)
    • Id. at 934-35.
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 934-935
  • 348
    • 33750111283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Rodriguez
    • Future dangerousness and other issues raised by genetics evidence are discussed in (N.Y. Sup. Ct.) which concerns defendants' privacy rights in the context of the recent trend to collect DNA samples. See supra note 76 for a more detailed account of Rodriguez
    • Future dangerousness and other issues raised by genetics evidence are discussed in People v. Rodriguez, 764 N.Y.S.2d 305 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 2003), which concerns defendants' privacy rights in the context of the recent trend to collect DNA samples. See supra note 76 for a more detailed account of Rodriguez.
    • (2003) N.Y.S.2d , vol.764 , pp. 305
  • 349
    • 33750110789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Franklin
    • 750, (Ill.)
    • People v. Franklin, 656 N.E.2d 750, 761 (Ill. 1995).
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 761
  • 350
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • 1229 (9th Cir.) vacated, reh'g en banc granted
    • Landrigan v. Stewart, 272 F.3d 1221, 1229 (9th Cir. 2001) vacated, reh'g en banc granted,
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 351
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.) aff'g in part, rev'g in part
    • F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 352
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006)(en banc).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 353
    • 33750107451 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Chart 2; infra app
    • See supra Chart 2; infra app.
  • 354
    • 33750111580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ohio)
    • N.E.2d 151 (Ohio 1998).
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 151
  • 355
    • 33750094297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ohio)
    • Id. at 165.
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 356
    • 33750094297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ohio)
    • Id.
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.692 , pp. 165
  • 357
    • 33750125254 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • *2 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • *2 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20, 2000).
    • (2000)
  • 358
    • 33750123861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id. at 1.
    • (2000) , pp. 2
  • 359
    • 33750105264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id. at 3-6.
    • (2000) , pp. 3-6
  • 360
    • 33750112504 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id. at 11.
    • (2000) , pp. 11
  • 361
    • 33750115011 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id.
    • (2000) , pp. 11
  • 362
    • 33750136224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Chart 3; infra app
    • See supra Chart 3; infra app.
  • 363
    • 33750135928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2000 WL 973104
    • 0 WL 973104, at 1.
  • 364
    • 33750105549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2000 WL 973104
    • Id. at 11.
  • 365
    • 33750105001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill. App. Ct.)
    • N.E.2d 452 (III. App. Ct. 1996).
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 452
  • 366
    • 33750136741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill. App. Ct.)
    • Id. at 458.
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 458
  • 367
    • 33750136741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill. App. Ct.)
    • Id.
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 458
  • 368
    • 33750136741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill. App. Ct.)
    • Id.
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 458
  • 369
    • 33750120487 scopus 로고
    • Billiot v. State
    • See 1, (Miss.) (stating that the expert's testimony, was not outcome-determinative, although the testimony reflected the broadest and most recent research on the defendant)
    • See Billiot v. State, 655 So. 2d 1, 13 (Miss. 1995) (stating that the expert's testimony, was not outcome-determinative, although the testimony reflected the broadest and most recent research on the defendant).
    • (1995) So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 13
  • 370
    • 33750120487 scopus 로고
    • Billiot v. State
    • See 1, (Miss.) (stating that the expert's testimony, was not outcome-determinative, although the testimony reflected the broadest and most recent research on the defendant)
    • Id. at 17.
    • (1995) So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 17
  • 371
    • 33750120487 scopus 로고
    • Billiot v. State
    • See 1, (Miss.) (stating that the expert's testimony, was not outcome-determinative, although the testimony reflected the broadest and most recent research on the defendant)
    • Id. at 13.
    • (1995) So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 13
  • 372
    • 33750113311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill.)
    • N.E.2d 960 (III. 1998).
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.700 , pp. 960
  • 373
    • 33750128109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ill.)
    • Id. at 970.
    • (1998) N.E.2d , vol.700 , pp. 970
  • 374
    • 33750122272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tex. Crim. App.)
    • S.W.3d 24 (Tex. Crim. App. 2004).
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 24
  • 375
    • 33750127113 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Tex. Crim. App.)
    • Id. at 30.
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 30
  • 376
    • 33750094300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20, 2000).
    • (2000)
  • 377
    • 33750110269 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id. at *11.
    • (2000) , pp. 11
  • 378
    • 33750121768 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • Id.
    • (2000) , pp. 11
  • 379
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • (Ga.)
    • S.E.2d 61 (Ga. 1995).
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 61
  • 380
    • 33750094875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 12 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 12 and accompanying text.
  • 381
    • 0030338366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research
    • See (outlining the political and moral concerns over genetics evidence)
    • See Denno, supra note 2, at 254 (outlining the political and moral concerns over genetics evidence);
    • (1996) Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 248-264
    • Denno, D.W.1
  • 382
    • 0037688162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence - A Noxious Coctail of Genes and the Environment
    • 211, (discussing potential abuses in the context of the Mobley case)
    • see also supra note 12 (discussing potential abuses in the context of the Mobley case);
    • (2003) J. Roy. Soc'y Med. , vol.96 , pp. 213
    • Moosajee, M.1
  • 383
    • 33750113580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior
    • For example, shortly after the Ciba symposium took place, (discussing potential abuses in the context of the 1995 University of Maryland conference on)
    • infra note 189 (discussing potential abuses in the context of the 1995 University of Maryland conference on The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior).
  • 384
    • 33750128632 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part IV; infra app
    • See supra Part IV; infra app.
  • 385
    • 33750113583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence DNA Researchers Mum on Meeting, Hoping to Avoid Protests
    • Few conferences on the topic of genetics and crime have occurred since the Ciba symposium. For example, shortly after the Ciba symposium took place, the University of Maryland held a conference on The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior. David Wasserman, a legal scholar and organizer of the conference, noted at the time, "There are a hell of a lot of people attending this conference who think the dangers of genetic research are as great in the long term as the dangers of atomic energy"
    • Few conferences on the topic of genetics and crime have occurred since the Ciba symposium. For example, shortly after the Ciba symposium took place, the University of Maryland held a conference on The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Behavior. David Wasserman, a legal scholar and organizer of the conference, noted at the time, "There are a hell of a lot of people attending this conference who think the dangers of genetic research are as great in the long term as the dangers of atomic energy." Pezzella, supra note 3;
    • (1996) Biotech. Newswatch , pp. 14
    • Pezzella, M.1
  • 386
    • 0028842563 scopus 로고
    • Conflict Marks Crime Conference
    • see also 1808 ("The [Maryland] conference ... has been protested, canceled, rescheduled, and otherwise dogged by controversy ever since it was first planned...."). Previously, the conference had been cancelled because of the controversial nature of the topic
    • see also Wade Roush, Conflict Marks Crime Conference, 269 Science 1808, 1808 (1995) ("The [Maryland] conference ... has been protested, canceled, rescheduled, and otherwise dogged by controversy ever since it was first planned...."). Previously, the conference had been cancelled because of the controversial nature of the topic.
    • (1995) Science , vol.269 , pp. 1808
    • Roush, W.1
  • 387
    • 33750124701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DNA at 50: The First of a 3 Part Series, The Bad Seed
    • ("In 1992, just a year before Mr. Summer seized on the Dutch family study, the U.S. National Institutes of Health cancelled a conference on crime and genetics at the University of Maryland after black groups protested that such research was racially motivated")
    • Abraham, supra note 2 ("In 1992, just a year before Mr. Summer seized on the Dutch family study, the U.S. National Institutes of Health cancelled a conference on crime and genetics at the University of Maryland after black groups protested that such research was racially motivated.");
    • (2003) Globe & Mail
    • Abraham, C.1
  • 388
    • 33750104996 scopus 로고
    • Controversial Search for the Criminal Gene: A Conference the Americans Would not Allow
    • ("Public pressure forced the US National Institutes of Health to cancel a conference on [genetics and behavior] in 1992 after opponents of the research detected racial overtones in some of the proposed contributions")
    • Cookson, supra note 16, at 8 ("Public pressure forced the US National Institutes of Health to cancel a conference on [genetics and behavior] in 1992 after opponents of the research detected racial overtones in some of the proposed contributions.");
    • (1995) Fin. Times , pp. 8
    • Cookson, C.1
  • 389
    • 33750113583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence DNA Researchers Mum on Meeting, Hoping to Avoid Protests
    • ("Even participants [of the Maryland conference] found the meeting somewhat distasteful. Paul R. Billings, a professor at Stanford University ... said he feared the current concentration on genetics could bring back the kind of eugenics movement that was espoused by the Nazis")
    • Pezzella, supra note 3 ("Even participants [of the Maryland conference] found the meeting somewhat distasteful. Paul R. Billings, a professor at Stanford University ... said he feared the current concentration on genetics could bring back the kind of eugenics movement that was espoused by the Nazis.");
    • (1996) Biotech. Newswatch , pp. 14
    • Pezzella, M.1
  • 390
    • 33750122561 scopus 로고
    • Researchers See Gene Link To Violence But Are Wary
    • Feb. 19, ("[The Maryland] conference was called off after critics said that it was too accepting of the idea that inherited personality traits were the primary causes of crime and violence and that it would promote the notion that criminals could be identified by genetic markers")
    • Richard W. Stevenson, Researchers See Gene Link To Violence But Are Wary, N.Y. Times, Feb. 19, 1995, at 29 ("[The Maryland] conference was called off after critics said that it was too accepting of the idea that inherited personality traits were the primary causes of crime and violence and that it would promote the notion that criminals could be identified by genetic markers.");
    • (1995) N.Y. Times , pp. 29
    • Stevenson, R.W.1
  • 391
    • 33750126588 scopus 로고
    • Scientist Denounces Criminal Gene Theory
    • (London), Feb. 13, HOME, ("'[The Maryland conference] was seen as overtly racist'")
    • Tom Wilkie, Scientist Denounces Criminal Gene Theory, Independent (London), Feb. 13, 1995, HOME, at 2 ("'[The Maryland conference] was seen as overtly racist.'").
    • (1995) Independent , pp. 2
    • Wilkie, T.1
  • 392
    • 0037688162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Violence - A Noxious Cocktail of Genes and the Environment
    • This confusion was particularly apparent at the time of the Stephen Mobley case. Some news media referred to the genetics evidence as a culpability defense, not as a basis for mitigation. See
    • This confusion was particularly apparent at the time of the Stephen Mobley case. Some news media referred to the genetics evidence as a culpability defense, not as a basis for mitigation. See Moosajee, supra note 12, at 213;
    • (2003) J. Roy. Soc'y Med. , vol.96 , pp. 213
    • Moosajee, M.1
  • 393
    • 0347208956 scopus 로고
    • 'We Live in an Age of Exotic Defenses'
    • Nov. 22, ("Stephen Mobley blames his genes for making him kill .... [E]xperts say these defenses are typical of the bizarre and unusual rationales that increasingly are being heard in courtrooms across the USA as defendants try to find something - anything - to blame")
    • Robert Davis, 'We Live in an Age of Exotic Defenses', USA Today, Nov. 22, 1994, at 1A ("Stephen Mobley blames his genes for making him kill .... [E]xperts say these defenses are typical of the bizarre and unusual rationales that increasingly are being heard in courtrooms across the USA as defendants try to find something - anything - to blame.");
    • (1994) USA Today
    • Davis, R.1
  • 394
    • 15844367927 scopus 로고
    • Legal Beat: Man's Genes Made Him Kill, His Lawyers Claim
    • ("In a novel and highly controversial defense, [Mobley's lawyers] are arguing that Mr. Mobley's genes may have predisposed him to commit crimes")
    • Felsenthal, supra note 3 ("In a novel and highly controversial defense, [Mobley's lawyers] are arguing that Mr. Mobley's genes may have predisposed him to commit crimes.");
    • (1994) Wall St. J.
    • Felsenthal, E.1
  • 395
    • 33750131967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nature, Nurture, the "Criminal Gene" - What Makes Men Violent?
    • ("After [Mobley] was sentenced to death, his lawyers won an appeal. They argued that he was not acting on the basis of 'free will' but due to a genetic predilection. Virtually his entire family, they said, were violent")
    • Holmquist, supra note 2;
    • (1996) Irish Times , pp. 12
    • Holmquist, K.1
  • 396
    • 33750093740 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Freedom Is a Better Bet than the Gene Genie
    • (U.K.), Oct. 6, ("Generations of Mobleys, starting with [Stephen's] great-grandfather, had been antisocial and violent, and his lawyers tried to argue that he was hard-wired to be bad")
    • Marrin, supra note 2.
    • (2002) Sun. Times
    • Marrin, M.1
  • 397
    • 33750124701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DNA at 50: The First of a 3 Part Series, The Bad Seed
    • ("[P]eople are concerned [the argument] nullifies the idea of free will and responsibility. But I'm not using it as a defence, per se, but as a mitigating factor - you know, 'If you're thinking about putting this guy to death, think about this'.") (quoting Daniel Summer)
    • But see Abraham, supra note 2 ("[P]eople are concerned [the argument] nullifies the idea of free will and responsibility. But I'm not using it as a defence, per se, but as a mitigating factor - you know, 'If you're thinking about putting this guy to death, think about this.'") (quoting Daniel Summer);
    • (2003) Globe & Mail
    • Abraham, C.1
  • 398
    • 33750092948 scopus 로고
    • Do Your Genes Make You a Criminal?
    • ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history.'"). On occasion, the media also assumed Mobley founded his appeal on having a genetic disorder, although the appeal was based on the denial of his motion for funding to test for any genetic disorder
    • Connor, supra note 2 ("'There is no legal defence to his crime,' says ... Mobley's attorney. 'There is only the mitigating factor of his family history.'"). On occasion, the media also assumed Mobley founded his appeal on having a genetic disorder, although the appeal was based on the denial of his motion for funding to test for any genetic disorder.
    • (1995) Indep. on Sun. , pp. 19
    • Connor, S.1
  • 399
    • 33750141123 scopus 로고
    • Second Front: Genes In The Dock
    • See (London), Mar. 13, ("Even if [the Georgia Supreme Court turns down Mobley's appeal], lawyers believe it is now no longer a case of whether genetic evidence will be allowed in court but when")
    • See Boseley, supra note 3;
    • (1995) Guardian
    • Boseley, S.1
  • 400
    • 33750133426 scopus 로고
    • Refutation: No Such Thing as a Born Killer
    • (London), Feb. 14, (describing the Mobley appeal and the Ciba conference as being "[t]wo recent events [that] have revived the debate about whether criminal behaviour is genetically determined")
    • Malik, supra note 12.
    • (1995) Independent , pp. 15
    • Malik, K.1
  • 401
    • 33750101455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (S.C.)
    • S.E.2d 738 (S.C. 2004),
    • (2004) S.E.2d , vol.602 , pp. 738
  • 402
    • 33750135110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • South Carolina v. Von Dohlen
    • cert. denied, No. 04-937, (U.S. Mar. 21)
    • cert. denied, South Carolina v. Von Dohlen, No. 04-937, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 2695 (U.S. Mar. 21, 2005).
    • (2005) U.S. Lexis , vol.2005 , pp. 2695
  • 403
    • 33750137023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • South Carolina v. Von Dohlen
    • cert. denied, No. 04-937, (U.S. Mar. 21)
    • Id. at 741-46.
    • (2005) U.S. Lexis , vol.2005 , pp. 741-746
  • 404
    • 33750100916 scopus 로고
    • Hendricks v. Calderon
    • See also supra notes 154-55 and accompanying text (discussing) (N.D. Cal.)
    • See also supra notes 154-55 and accompanying text (discussing Hendricks v. Calderon, 864 F. Supp. 929 (N.D. Cal. 1994),
    • (1994) F. Supp. , vol.864 , pp. 929
  • 405
    • 33750111286 scopus 로고
    • aff'd, (9th Cir.)
    • aff'd, 70 F.3d 1032 (9th Cir. 1995)
    • (1995) F.3d , vol.70 , pp. 1032
  • 406
    • 33750108031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fudge v. State
    • (Ark.)
    • and Fudge v. State, 120 S.W.3d. 600 (Ark. 2003)).
    • (2003) S.W.3d , vol.120 , pp. 600
  • 407
    • 33750107184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also infra app
    • See also infra app.
  • 408
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • See, e.g., (9th Cir.)
    • See, e.g., Landrigan v. Stewart, 272 F.3d 1221 (9th Cir. 2001),
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 409
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted, (9th Cir.)
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 410
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • aff'g in part, rev'g in part, (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • aff'g in part, rev'g in part, Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006) (en banc);
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 411
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • Mobley v. State
    • (Ga.)
    • Mobley v. State, 455 S.E.2d 61 (Ga. 1995);
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 61
  • 412
    • 33750103020 scopus 로고
    • People v. Franklin
    • (Ill.)
    • People v. Franklin, 656 N.E.2d 750 (III. 1995);
    • (1995) N.E.2d , vol.656 , pp. 750
  • 413
    • 33750143770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. Ferguson
    • (Mo.)
    • State v. Ferguson, 20 S.W.3d 485 (Mo. 2000).
    • (2000) S.W.3d , vol.20 , pp. 485
  • 414
    • 33750105001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • People v. Hammerli
    • 452, (Ill. App. Ct.)
    • People v. Hammerli, 662 N.E.2d 452, 452 (III. App. Ct. 1996);
    • (1996) N.E.2d , vol.662 , pp. 452
  • 415
    • 33750120972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cauthern v. State
    • (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • Cauthern v. State, 145 S.W.3d 571 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2004).
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.145 , pp. 571
  • 416
    • 33750143244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hall v. State
    • 24, (Tex. Crim. App.)
    • Hall v. State, 160 S.W.3d 24, 26 (Tex. Crim. App. 2004),
    • (2004) S.W.3d , vol.160 , pp. 26
  • 417
    • 33750108626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hall v. Texas
    • cert. denied, No. 04-8762, (U.S. June 27)
    • cert. denied, Hall v. Texas, No. 04-8762, 2005 U.S. LEXIS 5073 (U.S. June 27, 2005).
    • (2005) U.S. Lexis , vol.2005 , pp. 5073
  • 418
    • 33750142691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Turpin v. Mobley
    • 458, (Ga.)
    • Turpin v. Mobley, 502 S.E.2d 458, 463 (Ga. 1998).
    • (1998) S.E.2d , vol.502 , pp. 463
  • 419
    • 33750142147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Landrigan, 272 F.3d at 1228 n.4.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , Issue.4 , pp. 1228
  • 420
    • 33750118607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan
    • Id. at 1229.
    • F.3d , vol.272 , Issue.4 , pp. 1229
  • 421
    • 33750094873 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State v. DeAngelo
    • No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20)
    • State v. DeAngelo, No. CR 97010866S, 2000 WL 973104, at *11 (Conn. Super. Ct. June 20, 2000).
    • (2000) , pp. 11
  • 423
    • 33750112768 scopus 로고
    • The Meaning and Significance of Research on Genetics and Criminal Beahviour
    • see also (discussing the five stated problems concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal cases)
    • see also supra note 72 and accompanying text (discussing the five stated problems concerning the use of genetics evidence in criminal cases).
    • (1995)
  • 424
    • 33750134839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dennis ex rel. Butko
    • See (listing the ways that genetics evidence validates the existence of a serious condition); infra app
    • See supra note 81 (listing the ways that genetics evidence validates the existence of a serious condition); infra app.
    • F.3d , vol.378 , pp. 895
  • 425
    • 33750113312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alley v. State
    • See infra app. (listing 138,) (Tenn. Crim. App.)
    • See infra app. (listing Alley v. State, 958 S.W.2d 138, 142 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1997)
    • (1997) S.W.2d , vol.958 , pp. 142
  • 426
    • 33750108630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Billiot v. State
    • 1, (Miss.)
    • and Billiot v. State, 655 So. 2d 1, 8 (Miss. 1995)).
    • (1995) So. 2d , vol.655 , pp. 8
  • 427
    • 33750139607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 68 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 68 and accompanying text.
  • 428
    • 33750105802 scopus 로고
    • (Ga.)
    • S.E.2d 61 (Ga. 1995).
    • (1995) S.E.2d , vol.455 , pp. 61
  • 429
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.)
    • F.3d 1221 (9th Cir. 2001),
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 430
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted (9th Cir.)
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 431
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • aff'g in part, rev'g in part, (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006) (en banc).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 433
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
    • (discussing the double-edged-sword issue in the context of the Landrigan case)
    • supra note 122 and accompanying text (discussing the double-edged-sword issue in the context of the Landrigan case).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 434
    • 33750130266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roper v. Simmons
    • Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005).
    • (2005) U.S. , vol.543 , pp. 551
  • 435
    • 33750130266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roper v. Simmons
    • ("The Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments forbid imposition of the death penalty on offenders who were under the age of 18 when their crimes were committed")
    • Id. at 578 ("The Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments forbid imposition of the death penalty on offenders who were under the age of 18 when their crimes were committed.").
    • (2005) U.S. , vol.543 , pp. 578
  • 436
    • 33750130266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roper v. Simmons
    • ("The Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments forbid imposition of the death penalty on offenders who were under the age of 18 when their crimes were committed")
    • Id. at 569-70.
    • (2005) U.S. , vol.543 , pp. 569-570
  • 437
    • 33750130266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roper v. Simmons
    • ("The Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments forbid imposition of the death penalty on offenders who were under the age of 18 when their crimes were committed")
    • Id.
    • (2005) U.S. , vol.543 , pp. 569-570
  • 438
    • 33750121499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 190 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 190 and accompanying text.
  • 439
    • 33750119938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 80 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 80 and accompanying text.
  • 440
    • 33750132365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (9th Cir.)
    • F.3d 1221 (9th Cir. 2001),
    • (2001) F.3d , vol.272 , pp. 1221
  • 441
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted, (9th Cir.) aff'g in part, rev'g in part
    • vacated, reh'g en banc granted, 397 F.3d 1235 (9th Cir. 2005), aff'g in part, rev'g in part,
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.397 , pp. 1235
  • 442
    • 33750143772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Schriro
    • (9th Cir.) (en banc)
    • Landrigan v. Schriro, 441 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2006) (en banc).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.441 , pp. 638
  • 443
    • 33750117267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 118 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 118 and accompanying text.
  • 444
    • 33750130267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Landrigan v. Stewart
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    • 33750111579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 75 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 75 and accompanying text.
  • 446
    • 33745323284 scopus 로고
    • His Lawyer Says It's in the Killer's Genes
    • Nov. 7
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* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.