AHR forum: From town center to shopping center: The reconfiguration of community marketplaces in postwar America

American Historical Review

Volumn 101, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 1050-1081

  Cohen, Lizabeth ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33749872495     PISSN: 00028762     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2169634     Document Type: Review

References (254)

1. "The Economy: The Great Shopping Spree," Time (January 8, 1965): 58-62 (and cover).
2. See Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985);
3. Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York, 1987);
4. Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (Garden City, N.Y., 1991);
5. William Sharpe and Leonard Wallock, "Bold New City or Built-Up 'Burb? Redefining Contemporary Suburbia," with comments by Robert Bruegmann, Robert Fishman, Margaret Marsh, and June Manning Thomas, American Quarterly 46 (March 1994): 1-61;
6. Carol O'Connor, "Sorting Out Suburbia," American Quarterly 37 (Summer 1985): 382-94.
7. The Editors of Fortune, The Changing American Market (Garden City, N.Y., 1995), 76.
8. Ann Durkin Keating and Ruth Eckdish Knack, "Shopping in the Planned Community: Evolution of the Park Forest Town Center," unpublished paper in possession of author;
9. Howard Gillette, Jr., "The Evolution of the Planned Shopping Center in Suburb and City," American Planning Association Journal 51 (Autumn 1985): 449-60;
10. Daniel Prosser, "The New Downtowns: Commercial Architecture in Suburban New Jersey, 1920-1970," in Joel Schwartz and Daniel Prosser, Cities of the Garden State: Essays in the Urban and Suburban History of New Jersey (Dubuque, Iowa, 1977), 113-15;
11. "Park Forest Moves into '52," House and Home: The Magazine of Building 1 (March 1952): 115-16;
12. William S. Worley, J. C. Nichols and the Shaping of Kansas City: Innovation in Planned Residential Communities (Columbia, Mo., 1990);
13. Richard Longstreth, "J. C. Nichols, the Country Club Plaza, and Notions of Modernity," The Harvard Architecture Review, Vol. 5: Precedent and Invention (New York, 1986), 121-32;
14. William H. Whyte, Jr., "The Outgoing Life," Fortune 47 (July 1953): 85;
15. Michael Birkner, A Country Place No More: The Transformation of Bergenfield, New Jersey, 1894-1994 (Rutherford, N.J., 1994), 174-77;
16. Bergen Evening Record, Special Foster Village Edition, August 10, 1949.
17. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 255-61.
18. On precedents in the pre-World War II period, see Richard Longstreth, "Silver Spring: Georgia Avenue, Colesville Road, and the Creation of an Alternative 'Downtown' for Metropolitan Washington," in Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space, Zeynep Celik, Diane Favro, and Richard Ingersoll, eds. (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), 247-57;
19. Longstreth, "The Neighborhood Shopping Center in Washington, D.C., 1930-1941," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 51 (March 1992): 5-33;
20. Longstreth, "The Perils of a Parkless Town," in The Car and the City: The Automobile, the Built Environment, and Daily Urban Life, Martin Wachs and Margaret Crawford, eds. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 141-53.
21. Editors of Fortune, Changing American Market, 78-80, 90.
22. Also see "New Need Cited on Store Centers," New York Times (February 13, 1955): 7.
23. Richard Longstreth, "The Mixed Blessings of Success: The Hecht Company and Department Store Branch Development after World War II," Occasional Paper No. 14, January 1995, Center for Washington Area Studies, George Washington University.
24. Samuel Feinberg, "Story of Shopping Centers," What Makes Shopping Centers Tick,
25. reprinted from Women's Wear Daily (New York, 1960), 1.
26. For useful background on the development of regional shopping centers, see William Severini Kowinski, The Malling of America: An Inside Look at the Great Consumer Paradise (New York, 1985);
27. Neil Harris, Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago, 1990), 7, 76-77, 278-88;
28. Margaret Crawford, "The World in a Shopping Mall," in Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of Public Space (New York, 1992), 3-30;
29. Gillette, "Evolution of the Planned Shopping Center."
30. On the postwar growth of Paramus and Bergen County, see Raymond M. Ralph, Farmland to Suburbia, 1920-1960, Vol. 6, Bergen County, New Jersey History and Heritage Series (Hackensack, N.J., 1983), 62-71, 76-90;
31. Catherine M. Fogarty, John E. O'Connor, and Charles F. Cummings, Bergen County: A Pictorial History (Norfolk, Va., 1985), 182-93;
32. Beautiful Bergen: The Story of Bergen County, New Jersey, 1962;
33. Patricia M. Ryle, An Economic Profile of Bergen County, New Jersey (Office of Economic Research, Division of Planning and Research, New Jersey Department of Labor and Industry, March 1980);
34. League of Women Voters of Bergen County, Where Can I Live in Bergen County: Factors Affecting Housing Supply (Closter, N.J., 1972).
35. Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 2, 94-102;
36. Ralph, Farmland to Suburbia, 70-71, 84-85;
37. Mark A. Stuart, Our Era, 1960 - Present, Vol. 7, Bergen County, New Jersey History and Heritage Series (Hackensack, N.J., 1983), 19-22;
38. Prosser, "New Downtowns," 119-20;
39. Edward T. Thompson, "The Suburb That Macy's Built," Fortune 61 (February 1960): 195-200;
40. "Garden State Plaza Merchant's Manual," May 1, 1957, and certain pages revised in 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1969, Garden State Plaza Historical Collection.
41. On the financing of shopping centers and the great profits involved, see Jerry Jacobs, The Mall: An Attempted Escape from Everyday Life (Prospect Heights, Ill., 1984), 52.
42. Victor Gruen, "Introverted Architecture," Progressive Architecture 38, no. 5 (1957): 204-08;
43. Victor Gruen and Larry Smith, Shopping Towns USA: The Planning of Shopping Centers (New York, 1960), 22-24;
44. both quoted in Gillette, "Evolution of the Planned Shopping Center."
45. For more on Gruen, see Kowinski, Malling of America, 118-20, 210-14;
46. "Exhibit of Shopping Centers," New York Times (October 19, 1954): 42.
47. Paul Goldberger recently profiled shopping-center builder Martin Bucksbaum in "Settling the Suburban Frontier," New York Times Magazine (December 31, 1995): 34-35.
48. Robert Bruegmann made the same point about the way the earliest design of suburban shopping centers resembled downtown shopping streets in a talk to the Urban History Seminar of the Chicago Historical Society, February 17, 1994.
49. Quoted in Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 101.
50. In addition to sources already cited on the control possible in a shopping center versus a downtown, see "Shopping Centers Get 'Personality,'" New York Times (June 29, 1958): 1.
51. Ernest Erber, "Notes on the 'City of Bergen,'" September 14, 1960, Box B, Ernest Erber Papers (hereafter, Erber), Newark Public Library (hereafter, NPL), Newark;
52. "Paramus Booms as a Store Center," New York Times (February 5, 1962): 33-34;
53. "The Mall the Merrier, or Is It?" New York Times (November 21, 1976): 62.
54. For details on particular stores and activities at Bergen Mall and Garden State Plaza, see Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 97-100;
55. Fogarty, et al., Bergen County, 189;
56. Prosser, "New Downtowns," 119.
57. Almost every issue of the Bergen Evening Record from 1957 and thereafter yields valuable material (in articles and advertisements) on mall stores, services, and activities. The discussion here is based particularly on issues from November 8, 13, and 19, 1957, January 8, 1958, June 10, 1959, and March 2, 1960.
58. Also see "Shoppers! Mass Today on Level 1," New York Times, June 14, 1994;
59. press release on Garden State Plaza's opening in the Historical Collection of Garden State Plaza, folder "GSP history"; "It Won't Be Long Now . . . Bamberger's, New Jersey's Greatest Store, Comes to Paramus Soon," promotional leaflet, stamped August 22, 1956, file "Bergen County Shopping Centers," Johnson Free Public Library, Hackensack, N.J.; "The Shopping Center," New York Times (February 1, 1976): 6-7.
60. For data on the allocation of shopping-center space in ten regional shopping centers in 1957, see William Applebaum and S. O. Kaylin, Case Studies in Shopping Center Development and Operation (New York, 1974), 101.
61. For evidence of the community orientation of shopping centers nationwide, see Arthur Herzog, "Shops, Culture, Centers - and More," New York Times Magazine (November 18, 1962): 34-35, 109-10, 112-14;
62. in the New York Times: "A Shopping Mall in Suffolk Offering More Than Goods," June 22, 1970: 39;
63. "Supermarkets Hub of Suburbs," February 7, 1971: 58;
64. "Busy Day in a Busy Mall," April 12, 1972: 55.
65. On the community-relations efforts of branch stores, see Clinton L. Oaks, Managing Suburban Branches of Department Stores (Stanford, Calif., 1957), 81-83.
66. George Sternlieb, The Future of the Downtown Department Store (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 10.
67. R. H. Macy & Company, Annual Report (New York, 1955).
68. The Times-Advocate, March 14, 1976, argues that Bamberger's, Macy's store at the Garden State Plaza, was at the forefront of the chain's appeal to the middle to upper-income shopper.
69. On market segmentation of shopping centers, also see William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (New York, 1956), 316-17;
70. Jacobs, The Mall, 5, 12;
71. and Albert Bills and Lois Pratt, "Personality Differences among Shopping Centers," Fairleigh Dickinson University Business Review 1 (Winter 1961), which distinguishes between the customers of the Bergen Mall and Garden State Plaza in socioeconomic terms.
72. Crawford's "World in a Shopping Mall," in Sorkin, Variations on a Theme Park, discusses the sophisticated strategies that market researchers use to analyze trade areas and pitch stores to different kinds of customers, 8-9.
73. George Sternlieb, "The Future of Retailing in the Downtown Core," AIP Journal 24 (May 1963),
74. as reprinted in Howard A. Schretter, Downtown Revitalization (Athens, Ga., 1967), 95,
75. and quoted in Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore, Md., 1990), 129.
76. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Consumer Expenditures and Income, Northern New Jersey, 1960-61," BLS Report No. 237-63, December 1963, Schomburg Center, New York Public Library, Clipping File "Consumer Expenses & Income-NJ."
77. "The Wonder on Routes 4 and 17: Garden State Plaza," brochure, file "Bergen County Shopping Centers," Johnson Free Public Library, Hackensack, New Jersey; "Notes on Discussion Dealing with Regional (Intermunicipal) Planning Program for Passaic Valley Area (Lower Portion of Passaic Co. and South Bergen," n.d., Box A, Folder 3, Erber, NPL; "Memorandum to DAJ and WBS from EE," November 22, 1966, Box B, Erber, NPL; National Center for Telephone Research (A Division of Louis Harris and Associates), "A Study of Shoppers' Attitudes toward the Proposed Shopping Mall in the Hudson County Meadowlands Area," conducted for Hartz Mountain Industries, February 1979, Special Collections, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
78. Stuart, Our Era, 20;
79. Lois Pratt, "The Impact of Regional Shopping Centers in Bergen County," unpublished conference paper delivered April 23, 1960, in possession of the author.
80. Samuel Pratt and Lois Pratt, "The Impact of Some Regional Shopping Centers," Journal of Marketing 25 (October 1960): 44-50;
81. Samuel Pratt, "The Challenge to Retailing," an address to the 1957 Annual Meeting of the Passaic Valley Citizens Planning Association, April 24, 1957, in possession of the author;
82. L. Pratt, "Impact of Regional Shopping Centers in Bergen County";
83. Samuel Pratt and James Moran, "How the Regional Shopping Centers May Affect Shopping Habits in Rochelle Park (Preliminary)," Business Research Bulletin 1, Bureau of Business Research, Fairleigh Dickinson University (1956);
84. New York University study cited in Thompson, "Suburb That Macy's Built," 196, 200;
85. Regional Plan Association, Committee on the Second Regional Plan, "Work Book for Workshops," Princeton, N.J., May 25-26, 1966, Box D, pp. V-7-9, Erber, NPL;
86. Stuart U. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers: A Study of Store Policies and Customer Demand, with Particular Reference to Delivery Service and Telephone Ordering (Boston, 1963), esp. 133-56, 228;
87. Plan One Research Corporation, New York City, for the Bergen Evening Record Corporation, The Mighty Market (Hackensack, N.J., 1971).
88. For national statistics on the decline of retail sales in central business districts while they mushroomed in metropolitan areas between 1958 and 1963, see Teaford, Rough Road to Renaissance, 129-31.
89. Pratt and Moran, "How the Regional Shopping Centers May Affect Shopping Habits in Rochelle Park";
90. Pratt, "Challenge to Retailing," 13-15.
91. For surveys of consumers outside of the New York area, see C. T. Jonassen, Downtown versus Suburban Shopping, Ohio Marketing Studies, The Ohio State University Special Bulletin Number X-58 (Columbus, Ohio, 1953);
92. Sternlieb, Future of the Downtown Department Store, 33, 131-33;
93. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers;
94. and several important studies described in Pratt, "Challenge to Retailing," 15-19.
95. See all the Pratt studies listed in note 22, as well as "Hackensack Faces Year of Decision," Bergen Evening Record (January 10, 1958): 47.
96. Herzog, "Shops, Culture, Centers - And More," 110, quote on 114.
97. "The Shopping Centers," New York Times (February 1, 1976): 7.
98. The discussion in the two previous paragraphs on the response of local businessmen to shopping-center development is based on the following sources: "From Now On - Until When?" Bergen Evening Record (December 6, 1957): 6;
99. "Bergen Shoppers Shun New York," Bergen Evening Record (December 19, 1957): 1;
100. "Main Street Making Comeback in Duel with Shopping Centers," New York Times (May 31, 1962): 1;
101. "Malls Threaten Downtown Suburbia," New York Times (December 20, 1972): 92;
102. Samuel Pratt and Lois Pratt, Suburban Downtown in Transition: A Problem in Business Change in Bergen County, New Jersey (Rutherford, N.J., 1958);
103. L. Pratt, "Impact of Regional Shopping Centers in Bergen County."
104. Articles on Hackensack merchants' struggle to compete include, in the Bergen Evening Record, "A City with Faith: Hackensack Grows," October 29, 1957: 19;
105. "Alma [Anderson-Linden Merchants Association] Continues to Work to Better Shopping Area," December 2, 1957: 35;
106. "The Way of Alma," December 7, 1957: 28;
107. "Life Line to a City's Future: Hackensack Must Plan, Promote," January 10, 1958: 35;
108. "How to Stimulate Business," January 10, 1958: 42;
109. "What's Ahead for Hackensack Business in '58," January 10, 1958: 48;
110. "So the Fight Is Worth Making," January 10, 1958: 58;
111. "Work Together to Build Business, Chamber Told," January 30, 1958: 3;
112. "Gooding Introduced to City Merchants: First Paid Executive Secretary Will Plan Promotions for Stores," January 30, 1958: 31;
113. "Bohn Rejects Business Role in Tax Boost," June 6, 1959: 9;
114. and "Main Street Is After Money," The Record (March 21, 1968): C1.
115. On other towns in northern New Jersey, see, in Bergen Evening Record, "O'Neil Proposes Park Garage as Boon to Englewood Stores," October 18, 1957: 25;
116. "Village Preparing Spaces for Parking of 90 Cars" [Ridgewood], November 6, 1957: 33;
117. "Chamber to Try Charge-It Plan" [Ramsey], November 8, 1957: 20;
118. "Ridgewood Storekeepers Act to Attract Holiday Shoppers," November 12, 1957: sect. 2, p. 1;
119. "Chamber President Finds Shopping Off" [Bergenfield], December 27, 1957: 9;
120. "Drop of 5-10% Reported in Christmas Business" [Dumont], December 31, 1957: 5;
121. "Shop at Local Stores, Kiwanis Members Told" [New Milford], March 2, 1960: 9.
122. For an excellent case study of Lancaster, Pennsylvania's struggle with suburban retail competition and central city decline, see David Schuyler, "Prologue to Urban Renewal: The Problem of Downtown Lancaster, 1945-1960," Pennsylvania History 61 (January 1994): 75-101.
123. "Bergen Wary of Shopping on Sundays," New York Times, September 7, 1993.
124. Thompson, "Suburb That Macy's Built," 200;
125. Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 101.
126. The political and legal struggle over establishing blue laws in Paramus and Bergen County can be traced in the Bergen Evening Record, beginning in 1957.
127. The battle continued into recent times, with another Bergen County referendum in November 1993, which upheld the Sunday closing ban. Paramus and Bergen County are among a very few places in New Jersey that still have blue laws on the books. On the recent referendum, see, in the New York Times, "On Sundays, Bergen Shoppers Rest," December 7, 1992;
128. "Bergen Stores Try to Repeal 'Blue Laws,'" August 27, 1993: B1;
129. "Bergen Wary of Shopping on Sundays," September 7, 1993: B1;
130. "Malls Wrestle with the Blues," September 26, 1993;
131. and "Both Sides of Aisle Converge over Blue Laws," The Record (October 13, 1993): C3;
132. "Bergen Stores to Stay Closed on Sundays," Star-Ledger, November 3, 1993.
133. On the struggle over blue laws nationwide, including New Jersey, during the late 1950s and 1960s, see Gerald Gunther, Cases and Materials on Individual Rights in Constitutional Law, 3d edn. (Mineola, N.Y., 1981), 1183-84;
134. E. B. Weiss, "Never on Sunday? A Study on Sunday Retailing" (New York: Doyle Dane Bernbach, Inc., 1962), mimeograph, esp. 11, 36-43, 59, 63, 79, 83-84. My thanks to Alexis McCrossen for bringing this last document to my attention.
135. "Supermarkets Hub of Suburbs," New York Times (February 7, 1971): 58;
136. "Main Street Making Comeback in Duel with Shopping Centers," New York Times (May 31, 1962): 1;
137. Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 100-02;
138. Gillette, "Evolution of the Planned Shopping Center," 454-56;
139. "A New Hackensack Sky Line Looms on Drawing Boards," Bergen Evening Record (December 26, 1957): 40;
140. James B. Kenyon, Industrial Localization and Metropolitan Growth: The Paterson-Passaic District (Chicago, 1960), 209-10;
141. Paterson Planning Board and Boorman and Dorram, Inc., Consultants, "Traffic and Transportation Survey, Paterson Master Plan, Report 3, August 1964"; Rutgers University Bureau of Economic Research in contract to New Jersey Dept. of Conservation and Economic Development for the Meadowland Regional Development Agency and the State of New Jersey, "Technical Report No. 1H: Patterns of Urban Growth and Decline," November 1966, Box A, Folder 7, pp. IH-38, 64, Erber, NPL.
142. Sternlieb, Future of the Downtown Department Store, 33-36;
143. Rich, Shopping Center Behavior of Department Store Customers, 52-54;
144. Editors of Fortune, Changing American Market, 85-86;
145. John Wallis Johnston, The Department-Store Buyer: A View from Inside the Parent-Branch Complexes, Studies in Marketing No. 12 (Austin, Tex., 1969), 25;
146. Jay Scher, Financial and Operating Results of Department and Specialty Stores of 1976 (New York, 1977),
147. cited in Teaford, Rough Road to Renaissance, 208.
148. Shopping centers retreated from promoting themselves as central squares and street corners not only because of the free speech issue but also to limit the loitering of young people. New York Times: "Supermarkets Hub of Suburbs," February 7, 1971: 58;
149. "Coping with Shopping-Center Crises, Dilemma: How Tough to Get If Young Are Unruly," March 7, 1971: sect. 3, p. 1;
150. "Shopping Centers Change and Grow," May 23, 1971: sect. 7, p. 1.
151. For a useful summary of the relevant court cases and legal issues involved, see Curtis J. Berger, "PruneYard Revisited: Political Activity on Private Lands," New York University Law Review 66 (June 1991): 633-94;
152. also "Shopping Centers Change and Grow," New York Times (May 23, 1971): sect. 7, p. 1.
153. The corporate shopping center's antagonism to free political expression and social action is discussed in Herbert I. Schiller, Culture Inc.: The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York, 1989), 98-101.
154. On Amalgamated vs. Logan Valley Plaza, see "Property Rights vs. Free Speech," New York Times (July 9, 1972): sect. 7, p. 9;
155. "Amalgamated Food Employees Union Local 590 v. Logan Valley Plaza," 88 S.Ct. 1601 (1968), Supreme Court Reporter, 1601-20;
156. US 308, U.S. Supreme Court Recording Briefs 1967, No. 478, microfiche; "Free Speech: Peaceful Picketing on Quasi-Public Property," Minnesota Law Review 53 (March 1969): 873-82.
157. On Marsh vs. State of Alabama, see 66 S.Ct. 276, Supreme Court Reporter, 276-84. Other relevant cases between Marsh vs. Alabama and Amalgamated vs. Logan Valley Plaza are Nahas vs. Local 905, Retail Clerks International Assoc. (1956), Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America vs. Wonderland Shopping Center, Inc. (1963), Schwartz-Torrance Investment Corp. vs. Bakery and Confectionary Workers' Union, Local No. 31 (1964); with each case, the Warren court was moving closer to a recognition that the shopping center was becoming a new kind of public forum.
158. "A Nixon Appointees End Court's School Unanimity, Shopping Centers' Right to Ban Pamphleteering Is Upheld, 5 to 4," New York Times (June 23, 1972): 1;
159. "Shopping-Center Industry Hails Court," New York Times (July 2, 1972): sect. 3, p. 7;
160. "Lloyd Corporation, Ltd. v. Donald M. Tanner (1972)," 92 S.Ct. 2219 (1972), Supreme Court Reporter, 2219-37.
161. The American Civil Liberties Union brief went to great lengths to document the extent to which shopping centers have replaced traditional business districts; see "Brief for Respondents," U.S. Supreme Court Record, microfiche, 20-29. See also People's Lobby Brief, U.S. Supreme Court Record, microfiche, 5. The Supreme Court majority wanted to make it clear that in finding in favor of the Lloyd Center, it was not reversing the Logan Valley decision, arguing for a distinction based on the fact that anti-war leafletting was "unrelated" to the shopping center, while the labor union was picketing an employer. The four dissenting justices, however, were less sure that the distinction was valid and that the Logan Valley decision was not seriously weakened by Lloyd. The important court cases between Amalgamated vs. Logan Valley Plaza and Lloyd vs. Tanner included Blue Ridge Shopping Center vs. Schleininger (1968), Sutherland vs. Southcenter Shopping Center (1971), and Diamond vs. Bland (1970, 1974).
162. Berger, "PruneYard Revisited";
163. Kowinski, Malling of America, 196-202, 355-59;
164. "Shopping Malls Protest Intrusion by Protesters," New York Times (July 19, 1983): B1;
165. "Opening of Malls Fought," New York Times (May 13, 1984): sect. 11 (New Jersey), 7;
166. "Michael Robins v. PruneYard Shopping Center (1979)," 592 P. 2nd 341, Pacific Reporter, 341-51;
167. "PruneYard Shopping Center v. Michael Robins," 100 S.Ct. 2035 (1980), Supreme Court Reporter, 2035-51; U.S. Supreme Court Record, PruneYard Shopping Center vs. Robins (1980), microfiche. The most important Supreme Court case between Lloyd vs. Tanner and PruneYard was Scott Hudgens vs. National Labor Relations Board (1976), where the majority decision backed further away from Logan Valley Plaza and refused to see the mall as the functional equivalent of downtown.
168. "Scott Hudgens v. National Labor Relations Board," 96 S.Ct. 1029 (1976), Supreme Court Reporter, 1029-47.
169. "Court Protects Speech in Malls," New York Times (December 21, 1994): A1;
170. "Big Malls Ordered to Allow Leafletting," Star-Ledger (December 21, 1994): 1;
171. "Now, Public Rights in Private Domains," New York Times (December 25, 1994): E3;
172. "Free Speech in the Mall," New York Times (December 26, 1994): 38;
173. Frank Askin, "Shopping for Free Speech at the Malls," 1995, unpublished ms. in possession of the author.
174. Marshall dissent, Lloyd vs. Tanner, 92 S.Ct. 2219 (1972), Supreme Court Reporter, 2237.
175. New York Times: "Business Districts Grow at Price of Accountability," November 20, 1994: A1;
176. "Now, Public Rights in Private Domains," December 25, 1994: E3;
177. "'Goon Squads' Prey on the Homeless, Advocates Say," April 14, 1995: B1;
178. "City Council Orders Review of 33 Business Improvement Districts," April 19, 1995: B1;
179. "When Neighborhoods Are Privatized," November 30, 1995.
180. A 1992 Supreme Court ruling, written by Justice Clarence Thomas, strengthened the hand of private property owners like the Lechmere store chain in keeping out union organizers. The decision has led malls to ban Salvation Army bell ringers at holiday time in order to protect themselves against union claims to equal access. "A New Grinch Turns Up at the Mall," New York Times (December 18, 1995): A12.
181. Jonassen, Downtown versus Suburban Shopping, 15;
182. Alan Voorhees, Shopping Habits and Travel Patterns (Washington, D.C., 1955), 6;
183. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers, 61-64;
184. on the long history of women as shoppers, see Steven Lubar, "Men and Women, Production and Consumption," keynote address to the "His and Hers: Gender and the Consumer" conference, Hagley Museum and Library, April 1994.
185. The increasingly sophisticated field of market research addressed itself to motivating the female consumer. An excellent example is Janet L. Wolff, What Makes Women Buy: A Guide to Understanding and Influencing the New Woman of Today (New York, 1958).
186. My thanks to William Becker and Richard Longstreth, both of George Washington University, for their suggestions on comparing the gendered character of the downtown street to the shopping center. Also see Gunther Barth, City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1980);
187. Elaine Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989);
188. William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1890-1925," Journal of American History 71 (September 1984): 319-42.
189. On women driving, and specifically using a car for shopping, see Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers, 84-85, 137-38;
190. L. Pratt, "Impact of Regional Shopping Centers in Bergen County";
191. Voorhees, Shopping Habits and Travel Patterns, 17.
192. Herzog, "Shops, Culture, Centers-and More," 35;
193. "Busy Day in Busy Willowbrook Mall," New York Times (April 2, 1972): 55, 65;
194. Harris, Cultural Excursions, 281.
195. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers, 64, 71-74;
196. L. Pratt, "Impact of Regional Shopping Centers in Bergen County";
197. Sternlieb, Future of the Downtown Department Store, 27-28, 184;
198. Feinberg, What Makes Shopping Centers Tick, 97;
199. Oaks, Managing Suburban Branches of Department Stores, 72.
200. JCPenney, "An American Legacy, A 90th Anniversary History" (1992), brochure, 22, 25, JCPenney Archives, Dallas, Texas;
201. Mary Elizabeth Curry, Creating an American Institution: The Merchandising Genius of J. C. Penney (New York, 1993), 311-13;
202. William M. Batten, The Penney Idea: Foundation for the Continuing Growth of the J. C. Penney Company (New York, 1967), 17.
203. The opening of the J. C. Penney store in Garden State Plaza in 1958 is featured in a film, The Past Is a Prologue (1961), which is one of several fascinating movies made by the company that have been collected on a video, Penney Premieres, available through the JCPenney Archives.
204. Also see Penney News 24 (November-December 1958): 1, 7, on the new Paramus store, JCPenney Archives;
205. R. H. Macy & Company, Annual Report for 1957 (New York, 1957), 26.
206. Barry Bluestone, Patricia Hanna, Sarah Kuhn, and Laura Moore, The Retail Revolution: Market Transformation, Investment, and Labor in the Modern Department Store (Boston, 1981), 46-47;
207. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers, 100-01;
208. "'It Won't Be Long Now . . .': Bamberger's New Jersey's Greatest Store, Comes to Paramus Soon," stamped August 22, 1956, file "Bergen County Shopping Centers," Johnson Free Public Library, Hackensack;
209. press release, "The Garden State Plaza Opens Wednesday, May 1st at the Junction of Routes 4 and 17, Paramus," Garden State Plaza Historical Collection;
210. JCPenney, "An American Legacy," 21-22;
211. Curry, Creating an American Institution, 305-07.
212. On the expansion of credit in the postwar period, see Marie de Vroet Kobrak, "Consumer Installment Credit and Factors Associated with It" (M.A. thesis, University of Chicago, 1958);
213. Lewis Mandell, The Credit Card Industry: A History (Boston, 1990);
214. Hillel Black, Buy Now Pay Later (New York, 1961).
215. For a 1971 study documenting the possession of bank cards and store charge cards in the counties of Bergen, Passaic (New Jersey), and Rockland (New York) and when they were last used, see Plan One Research Corporation, Mighty Market, 382-85.
216. In 1958, the Paterson Evening News cited a recent newspaper poll on family finances showing that the wife has full control of the family purse in 90 percent of all families;
217. "Even as You and I," Bergen Evening Record (January 10, 1958): 58;
218. also "Handling Your Money," January 25, 1958, Bergen Evening Record, Weekend Magazine, 4.
219. Oaks, Managing Suburban Branches of Department Stores, 73;
220. "Paramus Booms as a Store Center," New York Times (February 5, 1962): 34;
221. "Sales Personnel Ready to Work," Bergen Evening Record, November 13, 1957.
222. Rich, Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers, 20;
223. Sternlieb, Future of the Downtown Department Store, 27;
224. R. H. Macy & Company, Annual Report for 1955, 29;
225. JCPenney, "An American Legacy," 25;
226. Stuart, Our Era, 20.
227. My understanding of labor conditions and organizing in the New York area, and in the Paramus malls specifically, comes from two manuscript collections at the Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University: the papers of Local 1-S, Department Store Workers' Union (RWDSU), and District 65, now of the UAW, then of the RWDSU. I have based my analysis on the clippings, meeting minutes, and legal files in those collections, which I have not cited individually unless I quoted from them. Michelson quote from "NLRB Ruling Spurs New York Area Union: Target - 50 Stores," Box 4, Folder 36, District 65; similar statement with two-thirds figure from "Report to General Council Meeting, Department Store Section, by William Michelson," January 12, 1965, Box 5, Folder 4, District 65. On department store efforts with part-timers, see "Part-Timer: New Big Timer," Women's Wear Daily, January 8, 1964, Box 4, Folder 35, Local 1-S; also see the records of a fascinating case that Local 1-S brought before the NLRB concerning the firing of a young woman employee who had shown interest in the union: Box 9, Folder 21, Local 1-S.
228. On industrial relations in department stores nationally, with a case study of the Boston metropolitan area, see Bluestone, et al., Retail Revolution, 70, 80-119, 148-49, which provides an excellent analysis of the restructuring of the labor market in the retail trade.
229. Also see Jacobs, The Mall, 49.
230. Bamberger's Paramus, "Welcome to New Friends and a New Career," Employee Handbook, 1957, Box 7, Folder 16, pp. 4, 9-12, Local 1-S.
231. "Amtrak Is Ordered Not to Eject the Homeless from Penn Station," New York Times (February 22, 1995): A1.
232. Article on passage of New Jersey Civil Rights Bill, New York Times, March 24, 1949;
233. Marion Thompson Wright, "Extending Civil Rights in New Jersey through the Division Against Discrimination," Journal of Negro History 38 (1953): 96-107;
234. State of New Jersey, Governor's Committee on Civil Liberties, "Memorandum on Behalf of Joint Council for Civil Rights in Support of a Proposed Comprehensive Civil Rights Act for New Jersey," 1948, II, B 8, Folder "Civil Rights, New Jersey, 1941-48," NAACP Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.;
235. "Report of Legislative Committee, NJ State Conference of NAACP Branches," March 26, 1949, II, B 8, Folder "Civil Rights, New Jersey, 1941-48," NAACP Papers. Other NAACP files on discrimination document the actual experiences of African Americans in New Jersey during the 1940s and 1950s.
236. "Closing of 'Last' Department Store Stirs Debate on Downtown Trenton," Star-Ledger, June 5, 1983;
237. "Urban Areas Crave Return of Big Markets," Star-Ledger, July 17, 1984;
238. "Elizabeth Clothier Mourns Demise of Century-Old Customized Service," Sunday Star-Ledger, January 10, 1988;
239. "President's Report to the Annual Meeting, Passaic Valley Citizens Planning Association," Box A, Folder 3, Erber, NPL.
240. On Newark, see for Raymond Mungin quotation, "Two Guys Will Be Missed," Star-Ledger, November 23, 1981.
241. Also see "Last-Minute Bargain Hunters Abound as Chase Closes Up," Newark News, February 12, 1967;
242. "Ohrbach's Will Close Store in Newark, Cites Drop in Sales and Lack of Lease," New York Times, December 7, 1973;
243. and, in the Star-Ledger, "S. Klein to Shut Last State Stores Sometime in June," May 9, 1975;
244. "Sears to Shut Newark Store," June 13, 1978;
245. "Hahne's Bids a Farewell to Newark," June 18, 1986;
246. "Macy's to Shut Stores in Newark, Plainfield," May 21, 1992;
247. "Newmark & Lewis Is Closing 11 Stores," October 15, 1993;
248. Greater Newark Chamber of Commerce, "Survey of Jobs and Unemployment," May 1973, NPL "Q" File;
249. Greater Newark Chamber of Commerce, "Metro New Jersey Market Report" [1991], NPL "Q" File.
250. "Amtrak Can Be Sued on Poster, Court Rules," New York Times (February 22, 1995): B4;
251. "Amtrak Is Ordered Not to Eject the Homeless from Penn Station," New York Times (February 22, 1995): A1;
252. "Can Amtrak Be a Censor?" Washington Post (February 23, 1995). The Amtrak case was complicated by the ambiguity of Amtrak's status as a government entity or private corporation.
253. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, Thomas Burger trans., with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass., 1989);
254. Geoff Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton, N.J., 1994), 297-335.