Emancipation and empire: Reconstructing the worldwide web of cotton production in the age of the American Civil War

American Historical Review

Volumn 109, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 1405-1438

  Beckert, Sven ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33749860006     PISSN: 00028762     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/530931     Document Type: Article

References (390)

1. Bremer Handelsblatt (October 11, 1862), 335.
2. Allen Isaacman and Richard Roberts, "Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa: Introduction," in Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa, Isaacman and Roberts, eds. (Portsmouth, N.H., 1995), 7.
3. For a general discussion of the global impact of the U.S. Civil War see C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, Mass., 2004), 161-65.
4. For developments in the United States, see Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850-1890 (New York, 1983);
5. Stephen Skowronek, Building A New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1870-1920 (New York, 1982);
6. Barbara Jeanne Fields, "The Advent of Capitalist Agriculture: The New South in a Bourgeois World," in Essays on the Postbellum Southern Economy, Thavolia Glymph and John J. Kushma, eds. (College Station, Tex., 1985), 73-94;
7. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York, 1988);
8. Richard Bensel, Yankee Leviathan, The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859-1877 (New York, 1990);
9. Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850-1896 (New York, 2001), chaps. 5, 6, and 10.
10. There is a very substantial literature on this subject, including David M. Potter, "The Civil War in an International Context," in The Legacy of the American Civil War, Harold Woodman, ed. (New York, 1973), 63-72;
11. Henry Blumenthal, "Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities," Journal of Southern History 32, no. 2 (May 1966): 151-71;
12. Carl N. Degler, One among Many: The Civil War in Comparative Perspective (Gettysburg, Pa., 1990);
13. Harold Melvin Hyman, ed., Heard Round the World: The Impact Abroad of the Civil War, by H. C. Allen et al. (New York, 1969);
14. Frank Lawrence Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2d edn. (Chicago, 1959);
15. Bernarr Cresap, "Frank L. Owsley and King Cotton Diplomacy," Alabama Review 26, no. 4 (1973): 235-51;
16. Charles M. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (Knoxville, Tenn., 1998);
17. D. P. Crook, Diplomacy during the American Civil War (New York, 1975);
18. Howard Jones, Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992).
19. Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain; with a notice of its early history in the East . . . (London, 1835);
20. Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, Including a History of the Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Association (London, 1886);
21. Alwin Oppel, Die Baumwolle nach Geschichte, Anbau, Verarbeitung und Handel, sowie nach ihrer Stellung im Volksleben und in der Staatswirtschaft; im Auftrage und mit Unterstützung der Bremer Baumwollbörse (Leipzig, 1902);
22. William B. Dana, Cotton from Seed to Loom: A Hand-Book of Facts for the Daily Use of Producer, Merchant and Consumer (New York, 1878);
23. Morris R. Chew, History of the Kingdom of Cotton and Cotton Statistics of the World (New Orleans, 1884);
24. Gerhart von Schulze-Gaevernitz, The Cotton Trade in England and on the Continent (London, 1895);
25. James A. B. Sherer, Cotton as a World Power: A Study in the Economic Interpretation of History (New York, 1916);
26. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, "Baumwoll-Expedition nach Togo" [1900], pp. 4-6, in R 150F, Fonds Allemand 1 (hereafter FA), 332, Archive du Togo, Lomé, Togo, microfilm copy in Bundesarchiv Berlin (hereafter BA Berlin);
27. Elisée Reclus, "Le Coton et la Crise Américaine," Revue des Deux Mondes 32 (1862): 176-208;
28. Charles J. Sundell to Seward, Stettin, May 15, 1863, Despatches from United States Consuls in Stettin, as quoted in Michael Löffler, Preußens und Sachsens Beziehungen zu den USA während des Sezessionskrieges, 1860-1865 (Münster, 1999), 110.
29. Reclus, "Le Coton et la Crise Américaine," 176.
30. Dwijendra Tripathi, "A Shot from Afar: India and the Failure of Confederate Diplomacy," Indian Journal of American Studies 10, no. 2 (1980): 75;
31. J. B. Smith (Stockport) in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 167 (1862), 754;
32. D. A. Farnie, The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815-1896 (Oxford, 1979), 180.
33. Douglass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790-1860 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1961).
34. The Economist (hereafter Econ), February 2, 1861, 117.
35. Econ, January 19, 1861, 58;
36. M. K. Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskie sviazi Rossii so Srednei Aziei: 40-60-e gody XIX veka (Moscow, 1963), table 17, 61;
37. "Vliianie Amerikanskoi Voiny na Khlopchatobumazhnoe delo v Rossii" [The effect of the American war on the cotton business in Russia], Moskva 25 (1867), January 25, 1867;
38. M. Gately, The Development of the Russian Cotton Textile Industry in the Pre-Revolutiontay Years, 1861-1913 (PhD dissertation, University of Kansas, 1968),
39. Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt, Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, Erster Jahrgang, 1880 (Berlin, 1880), 87;
40. U.S. Department of the Treasury, Bureau of Statistics, Cotton in Commerce, Statistics of United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Egypt, and British India (Washington, D.C., 1895), 29.
41. The French numbers are for 1859; see Claude Fohlen, L'Industrie Textile au Temps du Second Empire (Paris, 1956), 284, 514.
42. On the importance of the United States to world cotton markets see Gavin Wright, "Cotton Competition and the Post-Bellum Recovery of the American South," Journal of Economic History 34, no. 3 (September 1974): 610-35;
43. Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy since the Civil War (New York, 1986).
44. J. T. Danson, "On the Existing Connection between American Slavery and the British Cotton Manufacture," in Journal of the Statistical Society of London 20 (March 1857), 7.
45. For a similar argument see also Reclus, "Le Coton et la Crise Américaine," 176, 187.
46. Arguments about the connection between capitalism and slavery can also be found in Philip McMichael, "Slavery in Capitalism: The Rise and Demise of the U.S. Ante-Bellum Cotton Culture," in Theory and Society 20 (June 1991): 321-49,
47. Joseph Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (New York, 2003);
48. and Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994).
49. See for this argument Beckert, Monied Metropolis, chaps. 3 and 4.
50. John Marshman quoted in Times of India (hereafter, ToI), "Overland Summary," March 12, 1863.
51. The quote is from Jahresbericht der Handels- und Gewerbekammer Chemnitz (1865): 6,
52. as quoted in Loffler, Preußens und Sachsens Beziehungen, 302;
53. see also Matthew B. Hammond, The Cotton Industry: An Essay in American Economic History (New York, 1897), appendix.
54. Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, table 1, appendix;
55. Liverpool Mercury (hereafter, LM), February 22, 1864; March 25, 1863.
56. On the relief efforts in Lancashire, see John Watts, The Facts of the Cotton Famine (London, 1866);
57. Hyman, Heard Round the World, 132.
58. Lynn Case, ed., French Opinion on the United States and Mexico 1860-1867: Extracts from the Reports of the Procureurs Généraux (New York, 1936), 123-25;
59. on Germany see Löffler, Preußens und Sachsens Beziehungen, 126, 147.
60. "Du pain ou la mort" is quoted in Thomas A. Sancton, "The Myth of French Worker Support for the North in the American Civil War," French Historical Studies 11, no. 1 (1979): 66.
61. LM, August 12, 1862: 7; for the British government's concern about the social impact of the cotton famine see, for example, the documents in HO 45, 7523, Home Office, Public Record Office (hereafter, PRO), Kew, London, United Kingdom. Even before the outbreak of the war, British Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell had hastened to assure cotton manufacturers in Manchester that his government would do all in its power to secure cotton from sources outside the United States.
62. The letter is quoted in LM, January 22, 1861, 2. For the William L. Dayton quotation see Dayton to William Henry Seward, Paris, March 25, 1862, Despatches, France, State Department Correspondence, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter, NA). Napoleon argued that social unrest would follow if cotton could not be secured. Thurlow Weed to Seward, Paris, April 4, 1862, Despatches, France, State Department Correspondence, NA. On diplomatic pressure see also William S. Thayer to Seward, London, July 11, 1862, Private letter, U.S. Consulate, Alexandria, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Alexandria, NA;
63. Löffler, Preußens und Sachsens Beziehungen, 111.
64. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-First Annual Report of the Board of Directors for the Year 1861 (Manchester, 1862), 21.
65. For evidence of this pressure see also Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-Third Annual Report of the Board of Directors for the Year 1863 (Manchester, 1866), 6;
66. Proceedings of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, 1858-1867, M8/2/6, Archives of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Manchester Archives and Local Studies, Manchester, UK.
67. For earlier efforts to increase cotton production in India, see Anti-Cant, India v. America: A Letter to the Chairman of the Hon. East India Company, On Cotton (London, 1850);
68. John Briggs, The Cotton Trade of India with a Map of India, Coloured to Indicate the Different Spots Whereon all the Varieties of Cotton which are Brought into the British Market have been Successfully Cultivated (London, 1840);
69. John Chapman, The Cotton and Commerce of India: Considered in Relation to the Interests of Great Britain; with Remarks on Railway Communication in the Bombay Presidency (London, 1851);
70. The Cotton Trade of India (London, 1839);
71. Thomas Williamson, Two Letters on the Advantages of Railway Communication in Western India, Addressed to the Right Hon. Lord Wharncliffe, Chairman of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company (England);
72. The Cotton Trade of India, Part II: Its Future Prospects (London [1840]);
73. Walter R. Cassels, Cotton: An Account of its Culture in the Bombay Presidency (Bombay, 1862), 16-237.
74. For the quotation see Econ, February 2, 1861, 117.
75. For the efforts by manufacturers, see Charles Wood to William Reeves, March 18, 1861, Letterbook, March 18 to May 25, LB 7, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library, London, UK (hereafter, IOL); Wood to Earl of Elgin, October 25, 1862, Letterbook, July 3 to December 31, 1862, LB 11, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL; Letter from Messrs. Mosley and Hurst, Agents to the Cotton Supply Association, to W. Greq, Esq, Secretary to the Government of India, dated June 20, 1861, reprinted in ToI, July 18, 1861, 3. For the quotation see Wood to W. J. Grant, May 9, 1861, in LB 7, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL. On the debates on the passage of a law that made the adulteration of cotton a crime, see the ToI reporting in 1863, for example on February 12, 1863, "Overland Summary," 6-7;
76. also "Overland Summary," ToI, March 27, 1863, 1.
77. For pressures to change Indian contract law, see Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-First Annual Report, 13.
78. See also Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Directors for the Year 1862 (Manchester, 1863), 37; Wood to William Maine, October 9, 1862, Letterbook, July 3 to December 31, 1862, LB 11, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL;
79. reprint of a resolution of the home department, February 28, 1861, Supplement to the Calcutta Gazette, March 2, 1861, in Papers relating to Cotton Cultivation in India, 106, Wood Papers, MSS EUR F 78, IOL.
80. Some of the mechanisms are related well in John Henry Rivett-Carnac, Many Memories of Life in India, at Home, and Abroad (Edinburgh, 1910), 165-93. For the debate during the war between manufacturers and government officials, see also Wood to Elgin, October 25, 1862, LB 11, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL; Wood to William Maine, October 9, 1862, Letterbook, July 3 to December 31, 1862, LB 11, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL;
81. Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 167 (1862), 767;
82. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-Second Annual Report, 1863, 26;
83. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-First Annual Report;
84. LM, September 24, 1862, 6; Wood to Sir George Clerk, March 18, 1861, in LB 7, March 18 to May 25, 1861, F 78, MSS EUR, IOL;
85. Peter Harnetty, "The Imperialism of Free Trade: Lancashire, India, and the Cotton Supply Question, 1861-1865," Journal of British Studies 6, no. 1 (November 1966): 75-76.
86. For the debate as a whole, see Dwijendra Tripathi, "Opportunism of Free Trade: Lancashire Cotton Famine and Indian Cotton Cultivation," Indian Economic and Social History Review 4, no. 3 (1967): 255-63.
87. Neil Charlesworth, Peasants and Imperial Rule: Agriculture and Agrarian Society in the Bombay Presidency, 1850-1935 (Cambridge, 1985), 135.
88. Reichsenquete für die Baumwollen- und Leinen-Industrie, Statistische Ermittelungen, Heft (Berlin, 1878) 1, 56-58;
89. James A. Mann , The Cotton Trade of Great Britain: Its Rise, Progress, and Present Extent (London, 1860), 103, 112, 132;
90. "Overland Summary," February 12, 1862, ToI, 1;
91. October 3, 1862, ToI, 2;
92. Harnetty, "The Imperialism of Free Trade," 92;
93. Statistical Abstracts for the United Kingdom in Each of the Last Fifteen Years from 1857 to 1871 (London, 1872), 48-49;
94. Fohlen, L'Industrie Textile, 287, 514;
95. Bombay Chamber of Commerce, Report of the Bombay Chamber of Commerce for the Year 1863-64 (Bombay, 1865), 1;
96. Frenise A. Logan, "India - Britain's Substitute for American Cotton, 1861-1865," Journal of Southern History 24, no. 4 (1958): 476.
97. See also Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-Fourth Annual Report of the Board of Directors for the Year 1864 (Manchester, 1865), 18;
98. B. R. Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 1750-1970 (New York, 1976), E14;
99. Frenise A. Logan, "India's Loss of the British Cotton Market after 1865," Journal of Southern History 31, no. 1 (1965): 40-50.
100. On the issue of cotton versus grain, see "Overland Summary," ToI, January 14, 1864, 3;
101. Walter Richard Cassels, Cotton: An Account of its Culture in the Bombay Presidency, Prepared from Government Records and other Authentic Sources, in Accordance with a Resolution of the Government of India (Bombay, 1862), 205.
102. For a discussion of Egyptian peasants replacing their food crops with cotton, see Earle, "Egyptian Cotton and the American Civil War," 521.
103. Quoted in Edward Atkinson, "The Future Supply of Cotton," North American Review (April 1864), 481;
104. Edward Mead Earle, "Egyptian Cotton and the American Civil War," Political Science Quarterly 41, no. 4 (1926): 520-45;
105. E. R. J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy (Oxford, 1969), 89.
106. Estatísticas Históricas do Brasil: Séries Econômicas Demográficas e Socias de 1550 a 1988 (Rio de Janeiro, 1990), 346. They were urged on by the Manchester Chamber of Commerce and Lord Russell himself.
107. See Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-First Annual Report, 8;
108. Stanley J. Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture: Textile Development in an Underdeveloped Area, 1850-1950 (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 43.
109. Alejandro E. Bunge, Las Industrias del Norte: Construcción al Estudio de una Nueva Política Económica Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1922), 209-10;
110. LM, November 9, 1863, 6;
111. LM, January 3, 1865, 6;
112. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-Fourth Annual Report (1865), 16;
113. Donna J. E. Maier, "Persistence of Precolonial Patterns of Production: Cotton in German Togoland, 1800-1914," in Allen Isaacman and Richard Roberts, eds., Cotton, Colonialism and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, 1995), 75.
114. See also Peter Sebald, Togo 1884-1914; Eine Geschichte der deutschen "Musterkolonie" auf der Grundlage amtlicher Quellen (Berlin, 1988), 30;
115. O. F. Metzger, Unsere alte Kolonie Togo (Neudamm, 1941), 242;
116. "Der Baumwollbau in Togo, seine bisherige Entwicklung, und sein jetztiger Stand," draft of an unsigned article to be published in Kolonialwirtschaftliche Mitteilungen (ca. 1902), 8224, R 1001, BA Berlin;
117. Céleste Duval, Question Cotonnière: La France peut s'emparer du Monopole du Coton par l'Afrique, elle peut rendre l'Angleterre, l'Europe, ses Tributaires; L'Afrique est le Vrai Pays du Coton (Paris, 1864), 7.
118. Blumenthal, "Confederate Diplomacy," 151-71;
119. Degler, One among Many;
120. Hyman, Heard Round the World;
121. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy;
122. Cresap, "Frank L. Owsley and King Cotton Diplomacy";
123. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy;
124. Crook, Diplomacy during the American Civil War;
125. Jones, Union in Peril;
126. Lynn Marshall Case, The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy (Philadelphia, 1970);
127. Jones, Union in Peril;
128. Löffler, Preußens und Sachsens Beziehungen.
129. For proConfederate sentiments see, for example, LM, June 24, 1861, 3; August 12, 1861, 2; September 20, 1861, 6; October 8, 1861, 5; October 15, 1861, 5; December 18, 1861, 6; April 18, 1862, 6.
130. For pressure to recognize the Confederate government, see LM, July 16, 1862, 5; November 19, 1862, 3. For a controversial debate on slavery, see the letters to the editor to the LM printed on February 7 and February 9, 1863, both on page 3;
131. LM, May 21, 1863, 7.
132. See also John D. Pelzer, "Liverpool and the American Civil War," History Today 40, no. 3 (March 1990): 46;
133. The Porcupine, November 9, 1861, 61.
134. For material support for the Confederacy see, for example, copy of letter from Thomas Haines Dudley, U.S. Consulate Liverpool, to Charles Francis Adams, Liverpool, May 4, 1864, in Seward Papers, Library of Congress (hereafter LC), Washington, D.C.; Thomas Haines Dudley to William H. Seward, Liverpool, September 3, 1864, in Seward Papers, LC; LM, May 3, 1864, 6. Fraser, Trenholm & Company, operating out of Liverpool, secured funds for the Confederacy, built ships of war, and participated in blockade running. See the Fraser, Trenholm & Company Papers, Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool, UK (hereafter, MMML). Liverpool merchants went into business with agents of the Confederacy in trading cotton through the federal blockade. Letter by W. Fernie, Liverpool, to Fraser, Trenholm & Co, B/FT 1/13, Fraser, Trenholm & Company Papers, MMML.
135. Also see LM, February 4, 1863, 3;
136. Pelzer, "Liverpool and the American War," 46.
137. For Manchester, see LM, May 23, 1863, 6; October 6, 1863, 6; October 17, 1863, 3; February 1, 1864, 7;
138. for working-class support see LM, May 2, 1862, 7; August 9, 1862, 5.
139. For France, see Case and Spencer, The United States and France, 179.
140. See also Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-First Annual Report, 21-22.
141. For the Confederacy, see W. L. Trenholm to Charles Kuhn Prioleau (Liverpool), New York, June 21, 1865, B/FT 1/137, Fraser, Trenholm & Company Papers, MMML. On the importance of wheat imports to Britain, see, for example, Thayer to Seward, London, July 19, 1862, Seward Papers, LDC. For a far-flung debate on why not to recognize the Confederacy see Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 171 (1863), 1771-1842.
142. For British dependence on wheat and corn imports see especially 1795. See also Duke of Argyll to John Russell, October 11, 1862, Box 25, PRO 30/22, Lord John Russell Papers, PRO. On the Prussian desire for a strong United States to counterbalance British influence, see Löffler, Preußens und Sachsens, 59.
143. For various arguments made in the House of Commons for recognizing the Confederacy, see Hansard's Parliamentary Debates vol. 171, June 30, 1863, 1771-1842.
144. See also Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 165 (1862), 1165.
145. See also Martin T. Tupper to Abraham Lincoln, May 13, 1861 (Support from England), in Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln Papers, ser. 1, General Correspondence (n.p., 1833-1916), Library of Congress. The diplomatic correspondence between the British Foreign Office and the British embassy in Washington D.C. suggests that Foreign Minister Earl Russell along with the French government exerted considerable pressure on the U.S. government by reminding it again and again of Europe's need for cotton.
146. See Lord John Russell Papers, PRO. See also Lord Lyons to Earl Russell, Washington, July 28, 1863, in United States, Washington Legislation, Private Correspondence, Box 37, 30/22, Lord John Russell Papers, PRO; Wood to Earl of Elgin, August 9, 1862, LB 11, Letterbook, July 3 to December 31, 1862, F 78, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL. American diplomats, too, were frequently reminded of Europe's urgent need for cotton. Sanford to Seward, April 10, 1862, Seward Papers, Manuscripts Division, LC, as quoted in Case and Spencer, The United States and France, 290.
147. See also Thayer to Seward, London, July 19, 1862, Seward Papers, LC; Dayton to Adams, Paris, November 21, 1862, AM 15236, Correspondence, Letters Sent A-C, Box I, Dayton Papers, quoted in Case, The United States and France, 371.
148. Seward quoted in Thayer to Seward, March 5, 1863, U.S. Consulate, Alexandria, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Alexandria, NA. See also David R. Serpell, "American Consular Activities in Egypt, 1849-1863," Journal of Modern History 10, no. 3 (1938): 344-63; Thayer to Seward, Despatch number 23, Alexandria, November 5, 1862, in Despatches of the U.S. Consul in Alexandria to Seward, NA; Seward to Thayer, Washington, December 15, 1862, Seward Papers, LC; Trabulsi to Seward, Alexandria, August 12, 1862 and Thayer to Seward, April 1, 1862, in Despatches of the U.S. Consul in Alexandria to Seward, NA. For the dispatches to Seward on cotton see, for example, Thayer to Seward, Alexandria, July 20, 1861, in Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Alexandria, 1835-1873, NA.
149. Baring Brothers Liverpool to Joshua Bates, Liverpool, February 12, 1862, in HC 35: 1862, House Correspondence, Baring Brothers, ING Baring Archives, London, UK.
150. Atkinson, "The Future Supply of Cotton," 478. Atkinson is here not identified as the author, but his authorship becomes clear from his correspondence with Charles E. Norton. See N 297, Letters, 1861-1864, Edward A. Atkinson Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass. See also John Bright to Atkinson, London, May 29, 1862, Box N 298, Edward A. Atkinson Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass.
151. This is the impression from reading the Annual Reports of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. For a sense of relief by cotton interests, see, for example, Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-Third Annual Report, 17, 25;
152. LM, August 8, 1864, 7; August 9, 1864, August 7, 10, 1864, 3; August 31, 1864, 7; September 22, 1864, 7; October 31, 1864, 7.
153. LM, January 4, 1864, 8.
154. This general argument is also made by Tripathi, "A Shot From Afar."
155. Bremer Handelsblatt (April 22, 1865), 142. The institution of slavery itself, of course, thrived for a few more decades in places such as Cuba, Brazil, and Africa. By and large, however, cotton was no longer produced by slaves.
156. See Suzanne Miers and Richard Roberts, eds. The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison, Wisc., 1988).
157. Such as John Tarleton, who, during the 1780s, dealt in cotton only as a sideline to his main activity, trading in human beings. See Tarleton Papers, 920 TAR, Liverpool Records Office, Liverpool, UK. See also LM, September 22, 1863, 7.
158. Econ, January 19, 1861, 58
159. W. H. Holmes, Free Cotton: How and Where to Grow it (London, 1862), 18.
160. W. A. Bruce to Earl Russell, Washington, May 22, 1865, 22/28, 30, Lord John Russell Papers, PRO.
161. Holmes, Free Cotton; Edward Atkinson, Cheap Cotton by Free Labor: ByA Cotton Manufacturer (Boston, 1861);
162. Les Blancs et les Noirs en Amérique et le Coton dans les deux Mondes, Par L'auteur de La Paix en Europe par l'Alliance Anglo-Francaise (Paris, 1862).
163. The theme of "rehearsal for reconstruction" is taken from Willie Lee Nichols Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (Indianapolis, 1964).
164. LM, September 23, 1863, 6. This was also the conclusion of an increasing number of people in Liverpool, who by 1863 wrote an ever-increasing number of letters to the editor of the LM to make their antislavery voices heard.
165. See, for example, LM, January 19, 1863, 6;
166. LM, January 24, 1863, 7.
167. Atkinson, Cheap Cotton by Free Labor, Atkinson Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass.
168. See also Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-First Annual Report, 33.
169. Already in 1862, Mr. Caird argued in the House of Commons, that "[t]he advantages which the Southern States had hitherto derived from slave cultivation would to a great extent be at an end." Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 167 (1862), 791.
170. See also LM, January 3, 1865, 6;
171. LM, April 25, 1865, 6;
172. LM, May 13, 1865, 6.
173. For prices, see Todd, World's Cotton Crops, 429-32.
174. August Etienne, Die Baumwollzucht im Wirtschaftsprogram der deutschen Übersee-Politk (Berlin, 1902), 28.
175. The theme of labor shortage was also an important subject in discussions on the expansion of Indian cotton production during the U.S. Civil War. See, for example, ToI, October 18, 1861, 3; February 27, 1863, 6;
176. Zeitfragen, May 1, 1911, 1.
177. In the "West of Africa, though there was labor, the people were savage." LM, June 12, 1861, 3.
178. As the superintendent of the Cotton Gin Factory in the Dharwar Collectorate reported in May of 1862, "Although the cultivation of native cotton is capable of extension to an enormous degree, yet the amount of labour available is barely sufficient to clean the quantity now produced." Quoted in ToI, February 12, 1863, 3.
179. Reclus, "Le Coton et la Crise Américaine," 208.
180. Bombay Chamber of Commerce, Report of the Bombay Chamber of Commerce for the Year 1865-66 (Bombay, 1867), 213.
181. The permanence of this change is also emphasized by Maurus Staubli, Reich und Arm mit Baumwolle: Exportorientierte Landwirtschaft und soziale Stratifikation am Beispiel des Baumwollanbaus im indischen Distrikt Khandesh (Dekkan), 1850-1914 (Stuttgart, 1994), 66;
182. Mann, Cotton Trade, 132;
183. Statistical Abstracts for British India from 1911-1912 to 1920-1921 (London, 1924), 476-77.
184. There is an unfortunate tendency in much of the literature on the effects of the Civil War on India to limit one's view to the relationship between India and Britain, which entirely misses the more important trade in raw cotton between India and continental Europe as well as Japan. For the "empire centric" view, see, for example, Logan, "India's Loss of the British Cotton Market after 1865"
185. also Wright, "Cotton Competition and the Post-Bellum Recovery of the American South."
186. On the importance of continental European markets, see also Harry Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1868-69" (Bombay, 1869), 139;
187. C. B. Pritchard, "Annual Report on Cotton for the Bombay Presidency for the Year 1882-83" (Bombay, 1883), 2.
188. On the importance of the Japanese market, see S. V. Fitzgerald and A. E. Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, vol. A (Bombay, 1911), 192.
189. On increased imports of Indian cotton in Europe, see Dwijendra Tripathi, "India's Challenge to America in European Markets, 1876-1900," Indian Journal of American Studies 1, no. 1 (1969): 57-65;
190. Statistical Abstracts for the United Kingdom for Each of the Fifteen Years from 1910 to 1924 (London, 1926), 114-15;
191. Todd, World's Cotton Crops, 45.
192. For the reasons why Indian cotton found a ready market on the continent, see "Report by F. M. W. Schofield, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Simla, 15 September 1888," in Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Fibres and Silk Branch, April 1889, nos. 6-8, Part B, National Archives of India, New Delhi, India (hereafter, NAI).
193. The Brazil discussion is based on Estatísticas Históricas do Brasil, 346.
194. On the number of spindles, see Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, 191.
195. One observer argues that without the war, the rapid expansion of cotton production in Egypt would have taken half a century. See Earle, "Egyptian Cotton and the American Civil War," 522.
196. For the conversion of cantars into pounds, see Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 382-83. I assumed here that one cantar equaled 100 lbs.
197. See also Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 90, 123, 124, 197;
198. the permanence of this change is also emphasized by Alan Richards, Egypt's Agricultural Development, 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change (Boulder, Colo., 1982), 31;
199. Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 91.
200. Luiz Cordelio Barbosa, "Cotton in Nineteenth Century Brazil: Dependency and Development," (PhD dissertation, University of Washington, 1989), 170.
201. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Deutsch-koloniale Baumwoll- Unternehmungen, Bericht XI (Spring 1909), p. 28, in 8224, R 1001, BA Berlin;
202. Thaddeus Sunseri, "Die Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa," Central European History 34, no. 1 (2001), 46, 48.
203. Peasant resistance against colonial cotton projects in a very different context is also described in Allen Isaacman et al., "'Cotton is the Mother of Poverty': Peasant Resistance to Forced Cotton Production in Mozambique, 1938-1961," The International Journal of African Historical Studies 13, no. 4 (1980), 581-615;
204. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, "Verhandlungen der Baumwoll-Kommission des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees vom 25, April 1912," 169;
205. Eric Foner, Reconstruction.
206. See Herbert S. Klein and Stanley L. Engerman, "The Transition from Slave to Free Labor: Notes on a Comparative Economic Model," in Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century, Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons, and Engerman, eds. (Baltimore, Md., 1985), 255-70.
207. This was a different system of labor than the one that emerged in the global sugar industry after emancipation. There, indentured workers took on a prominent role. The difference is probably related to the fact that sugar production is much more capital intensive than the growing of cotton, and, moreover, because there are efficiencies of scale in sugar which do not exist in cotton. For the effects of emancipation on sugar, see especially Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860-1899 (Princeton, 1985);
208. David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922 (New York, 1995);
209. Frederick Cooper, Thomas C. Holt, and Rebecca Scott, Beyond Slavery: Explorations of Race, Labor, and Citizenship in Postemancipation Societies (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2000).
210. For the quote see Alfred Comyn Lyall, ed., Gazetteer for the Haidarabad Assigned Districts, Commonly Called Berar, 1870 (Bombay, 1870), 137.
211. All the numbers are from Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 184.
212. A very good introduction to the ways in which the British acquired Berar is reprinted in Moulvie Syed Mahdi Ali, ed, Hyderabad Affairs, 5 vols. (Bombay, 1883).
213. See also Lord Dalhousie to Charles Wood, June 3, 1843, F78, 17, MSS EUR, Wood Papers, IOL; "Lord Dalhousie's Minute on his Indian Administration - Hyderabad," Madras, Spectator, August 2, 1856, in Hyderabad Affairs, 2 (1883),
214. as quoted in Laxman D. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar (New Delhi, 1997), 58;
215. Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers: Amraoti District, 248;
216. Harry Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1867-1868," (Bombay, 1868), 10.
217. Maurus Staubli, studying the impact of the transition to a cotton export industry in another region of India, the district of Khandesh, came to very similar conclusions. See Staubli, Reich und Arm mit Baumwolle.
218. F. R. S. Briggs, The Cotton Trade of India: Its Past and Present Condition (London, 1839), 83;
219. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 142.
220. India and Bengal Despatches, vol. 82, August 17, 1853, 1140-1142 from Board of Directors, EIC London, to Financial/Railway Department, Government of India,
221. quoted in Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 142.
222. On the telegraph, see Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1867-68," 100.
223. On the occasion of the opening of the railroad no other than the British viceroy himself linked the new state of affairs explicitly to the American Civil War. "Opening of the Khangaon Railway," ToI, March 11, 1870,
224. reprinted in Ali, Hyderabad Affairs, vol. 4, 199.
225. On Khangaon see also Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1868-69," 98ff;
226. Lyall, ed., Gazetteer for the Haidarabad Assigned Districts, Commonly Called Berar, 1870, 230;
227. Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1867-68," 100;
228. Journal of the Society of Arts 24 (February 25, 1876), 260.
229. Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, 228. This was also the case in Egypt.
230. See Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 113. British capital also financed advances to Brazilian cotton planters.
231. See Barbosa, "Cotton in Nineteenth Century Brazil: Dependency and Development," 99.
232. Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, 253. In Egypt, rates from 12 to 60 percent annually were also typical.
233. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 107.
234. For the quote see "Report of the Committee on the Riots in Poona and Ahednagar, 1875" (Bombay, 1876), 80.
235. See also Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, 253;
236. Lestock Reid, Administration Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1876-77 (Bombay, 1877), 41; Printed letter from Chief Secretary to the Government of Bombay to A. O. Hume, Secretary to the Government of India, Department of Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce, March 1877 and Savashiva Ballal Goundey, Honorary Secretary, Sarvajanik Sabha, to the Chief Secretary of Government in Bombay, Puna, April 14, 1877, both in compilation No. 765, Report of the Deccan Riots Commission, Compilation Volume 161, 1877, Revenue Department, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai, India.
237. Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1868-69," 91. The American South, after the Civil War, also became much more dependent on cotton and an importer of foodstuffs.
238. See Wright, Old South, New South, 35;
239. Gavin Wright and Howard Kunreuther, "Cotton, Corn and Risk in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Economic History 35, no. 3 (1975): 526-51.
240. Ravinder Kumar, Western India in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in the Social History of Maharashtra (London, 1968), 35, 59, 151, 161;
241. Staubli, Reich und Arm mit Baumwolle, 58, 68, 114-15, 187;
242. Alan Richards, Egypt's Agricultural Development: 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change (Boulder, Colo., 1982), 55, 61.
243. In Turkestan, many years later, the result would be quite similar. John Whitman, "Turkestan Cotton in Imperial Russia," American Slavic and East European Review 15, no. 2 (1956): 190-205.
244. On economic change in the postbellum South, see also Foner, Reconstruction, 392-411;
245. Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1978), 166-76;
246. Wright, Old South, New South, 34, 107;
247. Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism.
248. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1976), 518, 899;
249. U.S. Department of the Treasury, Bureau of Statistics Cotton in Commerce: Statistics of United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Egypt, and British India (Washington, D.C., 1895), 29.
250. Historical Statistics of the United States, 518;
251. Tableau Décennal du Commerce; 1887-96 (Paris, 1898), 2, 108;
252. Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich vol. 13 (Berlin, 1892), 82-83;
253. Statistical Abstracts for the United Kingdom in each of the Last Fifteen Years from 1886 to 1900 (London, 1901), 92-93.
254. For a discussion on the U.S. South, see J. William Harris, "The Question of Peonage in the History of the New South," in Plain Folk of the South Revisited, Samuel C. Hyde, Jr., ed., (Baton Rouge, La., 1997), 100-25.
255. This was also the case in many other countries. In Peru, for example, tenant farming and sharecropping became the dominant form of cotton production in the wake of the Civil War and the enormous expansion of output that resulted from it. See Vincent C. Peloso, Peasants on Plantations: Subaltern Strategies of Labor and Resistance in the Pisco Valley, Peru (Durham, N.C., 1999).
256. For an argument about the increasing importance of economic space controlled by powerful imperialist nations, see also Giovanni Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power, and the Origins of Our Times (London, 1994), 262.
257. LM, August 12, 1862, 7.
258. Trying to "obviate the evils arising from our present position of dependence upon one main source of supply." Resolution passed by the Manchester Cotton Supply Association, reprinted in The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, June 1861, 678;
259. Arthur Redford, Manchester Merchants and Foreign Trade, 1794-1858 (Manchester, 1934), 217, 227;
260. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Expedition nach Togo, Bericht (Berlin, 1901).
261. See also Isaacman and Roberts, Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History; Records of the Togo Baumwollgesellschaft mbh, Record Group 7,2016, Staatsarchiv Bremen, Bremen, Germany;
262. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 55;
263. Thaddeus Sunseri, Vilimani: Labor Migration and Rural Change in Early Colonial Tanzania (Portsmouth, 2002);
264. Sven Beckert, "From Tuskegee to Togo: The Problem of Freedom in the Empire of Cotton," unpublished paper, 2004;
265. Earle, "Egyptian Cotton and the American Civil War," 520;
266. Zeitfragen: Wochenschrift fuer deutsches Leben (May 1, 1911), 1;
267. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Unternehmungen 1902, 1903 (Berlin, 1903), 5;
268. Thaddeus Sunseri, "The Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa," Central European History 34 (2001): 33.
269. The link between expanded cotton production of exports and larger import markets was frequently made by advocates of colonial cotton growing. See, for example, Karl Supf, "Deutsch-koloniale Baumwoll-Unternehmungen, Bericht VIII," Der Tropenpflanzer 11 (April 1907), 219.
270. See, for example, Zeitfragen (May 1, 1911), 1
271. Quoted in M. K. Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskaia politika tsarskogo pravitel'stva na Srednem Vostoke vo vtoroi chetverti XIX veka i russkaia burzhuaziia (Moscow, 1949), 100.
272. On earlier hopes for Central Asia as the cotton supplier to Russia, see also Pavel Nebol'sin, Ocherki torgovli Rossii s Srednei Aziei (St. Petersburg, 1855), 18, 22, 25, 27. Textile manufacturer Aleksandr Shipov stressed as early as 1857 the importance of securing access to Central Asian cotton.
273. See Aleksandr Shipov, Khlopchato-bumazhnaia promyshlennost' i vazhnost' eia znacheniia v Rossii, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1857), 49-50.
274. See also Charles William Maynes, "America Discovers Central Asia," Foreign Affairs 82 (March/April 2003), 120.
275. Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskie sviazi Rossii so Srednei Aziei, 54-55, tables 9-10.
276. Quote in Ekonomicheskie sviazi Rossii so Srednei Aziei, 64-65.
277. That the Civil War cotton shortage resulted in a greater attention among Russian cotton capitalists to the need to grow cotton in Central Asia, is also argued by Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskie sviazi Rossii so Srednei Aziei, 150-52.
278. A pood (or 35.24 lbs) of Asian cotton sold for 7.75 rubles in 1861, but by 1863 the price had increased to more than 22 rubles. P. A. Khromov, Ekonomicheskoe razvitie Rossii v XIX-XX Vekah: 1800-1917 (Moscow, 1950), 183.
279. In some regions, such as in the Erivan province (in the Caucasus), cotton production during the Civil War increased nearly tenfold, from 30,000 poods in 1861 to 273,000 poods in 1870. K. A. Pazhitnov, Ocherki istorii tesktil' noi promyshlennosti dorrevoliutsionnoi Rossii: Khlopchato-Bumazhnaia l'no-pen' kovaia i shelkovaia promyshlennost (Moscow, 1958), 98;
280. Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskie sviazi Rossii so Srednei Aziei, 55-61.
281. On January 8, 1866, Tsar Alexander II received a memorandum written by the minister of finance in favor of the exertion of greater influence on Central Asia, which listed among the supporters of such a project the names of a group of Russian capitalists, including owners of such prominent cotton ventures as Ivan Khludov & Sons, Savva Morozov & Sons, V. l. Tertyakov, and D. I. Romanovskii. See N. A. Khalfin, Prisoedinenie Srednei Azii k Rossii: 60-90 gody XIX v (Moscow, 1965), 211.
282. On the general debate about Russian imperialism, see Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History, Alfred Clayton, trans., (Harlow, 2001), 193;
283. Dietrich Geyer, Der russische Imperialismus: Studien über den Zusammenhang von innerer und auswärtiger Politik, 1860-1914 (Göttingen, 1977).
284. Moskva, February 1, 1867, n.
285. John Whitman, "Turkestan Cotton in Imperial Russia," American Slavic and East European Review 15, no. 2 (1956): 190-205.
286. Whitman, "Turkestan Cotton," 201; Anlage zum Bericht des Kaiserlichen Generalkonsulats in St. Petersburg, December 26, 1913, R 150F, FA 1, 360, BA Berlin.
287. The quotation can be found in P. I. Liashchenko, Istoriia Narodnogo Khoziaistva SSSR, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1956), 542.
288. Karl Supf, "Zur Baumwollfrage," in Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwollexpedition nach Togo [no date, but probably 1900], pp. 4-6, in R 150F, FA 1, 332, BA Berlin;
289. Gately, The Development of the Russian Cotton Textile Industry, 169.
290. The Portuguese government, for example, "on the occasion of the present state of things in America," offered cheap land and other encouragement to planters who might want to produce cotton in its African colonies of Angola and Mozambique as early as December 1861. See LM, January 17, 1862, 3.
291. The French government encouraged cotton growing in Algeria. See LM, April 2, 1862, 3; June 17, 1862, 8.
292. On Germany, see Beckert, "From Togo to Tuskegee."
293. Peter Duus, "Economic Dimensions of Meiji Imperialism: The Case of Korea, 1895-1910," in The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945; Ramon Hawley Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds. (Princeton, N.J., 1984), 152.
294. Letter to the editors, Isaac Watts, Secretary of the Cotton Supply Association, Manchester, November 23, 1863 as printed in the LM, November 26, 1863, 7.
295. Sunseri, Vilimani, 1-25;
296. Bulletin de la Société Industrielle de Mulhouse 32 (Mulhouse, 1862): 347;
297. Antoine Herzog, L'Algerie et la Crise Cotonnière (Colmar, 1864).
298. Lord Palmerston to John Russell, Broadslands, October 6, 1861, Box 21, 30/22, Lord John Russell Papers, PRO. Similar arguments were also made by German colonial advocates.
299. Econ, October 4, 1862, 1093-94.
300. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-Third Annual Report, 37;
301. Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., vol. 172 (1863), 1999-2001;
302. Harnetty, "The Imperialism Of Free Trade," 333-49;
303. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, The Forty-Second Annual Report, 11.
304. Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Forty-Second Annual Report, 22.
305. Charles S. Maier, "Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era," in AHR 105, no. 3 (June 2000), 807-831;
306. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875-1914 (New York, 1987), 69;
307. Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power: The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760-1914 (New York, 1993);
308. Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century 11.
309. Todd, World's Cotton Crops, 429-32;
310. Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1868-1869," 132;
311. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 80.
312. For Egypt see Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 107, 159.
313. For Brazil, see Barbosa, "Cotton in Nineteenth Century Brazil," 31, 95-102, 105-08, 142.
314. For western Anatolia (which also witnessed a dramatic increase of cotton production for world markets during the Civil War), see Orhan Kurmu "The Cotton Famine and its Effects on the Ottoman Empire," in The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy, Hurá İslamoǧlu-İnan, ed. (Cambridge, 1987), 169.
315. Todd, The World's Cotton Crops, 429-432. (In nominal terms.)
316. Data taken from "Index Numbers of Indian Prices 1861-1926," No. 2121, Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch, 1928, Summary Tables III and VI, IOL.
317. On the new uncertainty introduced by world market integration see also Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, 226.
318. See also Rivett-Carnac, "Report on the Cotton Department for the Year 1867-68," 52. Interestingly, already in 1790 the East India Company had anticipated the possibility of famine as a result of a greater concentration among peasants on cotton growing.
319. See "Objections to the Annexed Plan," November 10, 1790, 483-89, in Home Department, Missc., 434, IOL. A similar warning was issued in 1874.
320. "Memo by the Department of Agriculture, Revenue and Commerce, Fibres and Silk Branch to the Home Department, Calcutta, June 24, 1874," in Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce Department, Fibres and Silk Branch, June 1874: 41/42, Part B, NAI.
321. Anthony L. Hall, Drought and Irrigation in North-East Brazil (Cambridge, 1978), 4. He explicitly links the shift to cotton to the devastating impact of the drought.
322. Barbosa, "Cotton in Nineteenth Century Brazil," 105. He shows that Pernambuco was not self-sufficient in food, which created tremendous pressures on cotton farmers when the price for cotton fell and that of food grains rose. "The scarcity of 1896-97 was caused by high prices and not by failure of crops," reported the Deputy Commissioner of the Akola District (in Berar) to the Indian Famine Commission.
323. See Indian Famine Commission (Calcutta, 1901), "Appendix, Evidence of Witnesses, Berar," 43, 53.
324. For the mortality figures see Indian Famine Commission, "Appendix, Evidence of Witnesses, Berar," 54.
325. Total mortality between December 1899 and November 1900 was 84.7 per 1000. For the quotation see Indian Famine Commission, "Appendix, Evidence of Witnesses, Berar," 213.
326. On competition among workers, see Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Amraoti District, 276.
327. On famines in the late nineteenth century, see also Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London, 2001).
328. On Brazil, see Roderick J. Barman, "The Brazilian Peasantry Reexamined: The Implications of the Quebra-Quilo Revolt, 1874-1875," Hispanic American Historical Review 57, no. 3 (1977): 401-24;
329. Armando Souto Maior, Quebra-Quilos: Lutas Sociais No Outono do Império (Sao Paulo, 1978). The pressure of raising taxes was also felt by Egyptian cultivators who lost in the process most of the profits that they had accumulated during the Civil War.
330. See Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 144.
331. On the Indian riots see Neil Charlesworth, "The Myth of the Deccan Riots of 1875," Modern Asian Studies 6, no. 4 (1972): 401-21;
332. "Papers Relating to the Indebtedness of the Agricultural Classes in Bombay and Other Parts of India" (Bombay, 1876), "Report of the Committee on the Riots in Poona and Ahednagar, 1875." Further (grain) riots took place during the famine of 1899-1900.
333. See Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Famine Branch, November 1899, nos. 14-54, Part B, NAI; Ravinder Kumar, Western India in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in the Social History of Maharashtra (London, 1968), 186.
334. On Egypt, see Richards, Egypt's Agricultural Development, 42.
335. Hammond, The Cotton Industry, appendix;
336. Beckert, Monied Metropolis.
337. This graph is based on the author's analysis of data on cotton spindles from nineteen countries (Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States). Due to the dispersed and inconsistent nature of the sources, this is not more than an estimate. Some numbers have been extrapolated. For the numbers, see Louis Bader, World Developments in the Cotton Industry, with Special Reference to the Cotton Piece Goods Industry in the United States (New York, 1925), 33;
338. Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investment in India, 1900-1939, Cambridge South Asian Studies 10 (Cambridge, 1972), 234;
339. Javier Barajas Manzano, Aspectos de la industria textil de algodón en México (Mexico, 1959), 43-44, 280;
340. Belgium, Ministère de L'Intérieur; Statistique de la Belgique, Industrie (Bruxelles, 1851), 471;
341. Pierre Benaerts, Les Origines de la Grande Industrie Allemande (Paris, 1933), 486;
342. Sabbato Louis Besso, The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg, and Italy; A Report to the Electors of the Gartside Scholarships (Manchester, 1910);
343. George Bigwood, Cotton (New York, 1919), 61;
344. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 8 vols., H. J. Habakkuk and M. Postan, eds. (Cambridge, 1965), 6: 443;
345. Kang Chao, The Development of Cotton Textile Production in China (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 301-07;
346. Stanley D. Chapman, "Fixed Capital Formation in the British Cotton Industry, 1770-1815," The Economic History Review, n.s., 23, no. 2 (August 1970): 235-266, 252;
347. Louis Bergeron and Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal, De l'industrie française: Acteurs de l'histoire(Paris, 1993), 326;
348. Melvin Thomas Copeland, The Cotton Manufacturing Industry of the United States (New York, 1966), 19;
349. Cotton Facts: A Compilation from Official and Reliable Sources (New York, 1878), see years 1878-1920;
350. Richard Martin Rudolph Dehn, The German Cotton Industry; A Report to the Electors of the Gartside Scholarships (Manchester, 1913);
351. Thomas Ellison, A Hand-book of the Cotton Trade, or, A Glance at the Past History, Present Condition, and the Future Prospects of the Cotton Commerce of the World (London, 1858), 146-67;
352. Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (1886; New York, 1968), 72-73;
353. D. A. Farnie, The English Cotton Industry, 180;
354. Mimerel Fils, "Filature du Cotton," in Exposition Universelle de 1867 à Paris, 8 vols., M. Chevalier, ed. (Paris, 1868), 4: 20;
355. R. B. Forrester, The Cotton Industry in France; a Report to the Electors of the Gartside Scholarships (London, 1921), 5;
356. "Industrie Textile," Annuaire statistique de la France (Paris, 1877-1890, 1894);
357. Michael Gately, "The Development of the Russian Cotton Textile Industry," 134;
358. Statistisches Reichsamt, Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich(1913), 34: 107;
359. Aurora Gómez Galvarriato, "The Impact of Revolution: Business and Labor in the Mexican Textile Industry, Orizaba, Veracruz, 1900-1930," (PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 2000), 23, 45;
360. Great Britain, Committee on Industry and Trade, Survey of Textile Industries; Cotton, Wool, Artificial Silk (London, 1928), 142;
361. International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations, International Cotton Statistics, Arno S. Pearse, ed. (Manchester, 1921), 1-32;
362. International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations and Arno S. Pearse, The Cotton Industry of India, being the Report of the Journey to India (Manchester, 1930), 22;
363. International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations and Arno S. Pearse, The Cotton Industry of Japan and China, Being the Report of the Journey to Japan and China (Manchester, 1929), 18-19, 154;
364. Italy, Ministero Di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, "L'industria del Cotone in Italia," Annali di Statistica, series 4 (Rome, 1902), 100: 12-13;
365. Italy, Ministero Di Agricoltura, Industria, e Commercio, Annuario Statistico Italiano (Rome, 1878-), see years 1878, 1881, 1886, 1892, 1900, 1904, and 1905-1906;
366. S. T. King and Ta-chün Liu, China's Cotton Industry: A Statistical Study of Ownership of Capital, Output, and Labor Conditions (1929), 4;
367. Sung Jae Koh, Stages of Industrial Development in Asia: A Comparative History of the Cotton Industry in Japan, India, China, and Korea (Philadelphia, Pa., 1966), 324-66;
368. Richard A. Kraus, Cotton and Cotton Goods in China, 1918-1936 (New York, 1980), 57, 99;
369. John C. Latham, and H. E. Alexander, Cotton Movement and Fluctuations (New York, N.Y, 1894-1910);
370. e siècle (Paris, 1964), 29;
371. S. D. Mehta, The Indian Cotton Textile Industry, an Economic Analysis (Bombay, 1953), 139;
372. B. R. Mitchell, Abstract of British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1971), 185;
373. B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: Europe, 1750-1993 4th edn. (London, 1998), 511;
374. Charles Kroth Moser, The Cotton Textile Industry of Far Eastern Countries (Boston, Mass., 1930), 50;
375. National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, Standard Cotton Mill Practice and Equipment, with Classified Buyer's Index (Boston, Mass., 1919), 37;
376. Keijiro Otsuka, Gustav Ranis, and Gary R. Saxonhouse, Comparative Technology Choice in Development: The Indian and Japanese Cotton Textile Industries (New York, 1988), 6;
377. Alexander Redgrave, "Report of Factory Inspectors," in Parliamentary Papers, Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons (London, 1855), 69;
378. Johann H. Schnitzler, De la Création de la Richesse, ou, Des Intérêts Matériels en France (Paris, 1842), 228;
379. Stanley J. Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, 191;
380. Guy Thomson, "Continuity and Change in Mexican Manufacturing," in Between Development and Under-development: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800-1870, Jean Batou, ed. (Geneva, 1991), 280;
381. John A. Todd, The World's Cotton Crops (London, 1915), 411;
382. Ugo Tombesi, L'Industria Cotoniera Italiana alla fine del Secolo XIX (Studio Economico-Sociale) (Pesaro, 1901), 66;
383. United States, Bureau of Manufactures, Cotton Fabrics in Middle Europe: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland (Washington, D.C., 1908), 23, 125, 162;
384. United States, Bureau of Manufactures, Cotton Goods in Canada (Washington, 1913), 33;
385. United States, Bureau of Manufactures, Cotton Goods in Italy (Washington, D.C., 1912), 6;
386. United States, Bureau of Manufactures, Cotton Goods in Russia (Washington, D.C., 1912), 9-11;
387. United States, Bureau of the Census, Cotton Production and Distribution: Season of 1916-1917 (Washington, D.C., 1918), 88;
388. United States, Bureau of the Census, Cotton Production in the United States, (Washington, D.C., 1915), 56.
389. New York World, October 9, 1865, 1.
390. Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century, vol. 2 (New York, 1982), 433.