When arsenic is safer in your cup of tea than in your local water treatment plant

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 564-645

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EID: 33749463883     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (465)

1. THE AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 74 (1969).
2. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 52.
3. See THE AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 74 (1969).
4. The Pueblo of Santa Ana is attempting to eradicate saltcedar, a non-native pest plant that has invaded the Rio Grande watershed, by "pressure feeding a 1% aqueous solution of Arsenal® herbicide" upstream of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Todd R. Caplan, Saltcedar Control and Riparian/Wetland Restoration on the Pueblo of Santa Ana 5 (1998), (unpublished manuscript on file with the University of New Mexico School of Law Library).
5. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 109(a)(12)(A), 110 Stat. 1613, 1627-28 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
6. Id. at 1628.
7. Id.; § 104, 110 Stat. at 1623-24.
8. See § 109, 110 Stat. at 1628.
9. See § 101, 110 Stat. at 1616-17.
10. § 109, 110 Stat. at 1627.
11. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
12. See id.
13. See id.; Interstate Quarantine Drinking Water Standards, 27 Fed. Reg. 2152, 2154 (1962).
14. See National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 Fed. Reg. 59,566; 59,570 (1975) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 141.11 (b)).
15. See id. at 59,576.
16. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW /ars/ars1.html〈.
17. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
18. See id.
19. See id. at 8; Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 55.
20. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
21. Proposed Rules Environmental Protection Agency National Revised Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 48 Fed. Reg. 45,502; 45,512 (1983) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 141).
22. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
23. See id.
24. See Proposed Rules Environmental Protection Agency National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals, Inorganic Chemicals and Microorganisms, 50 Fed. Reg. 46,936; 46,957 (1985) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 141).
25. Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
26. See also Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW /ars/ars1.html〉.
27. See Proposed Rules Environmental Protection Agency National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals, Inorganic Chemicals and Microorganisms, 50 Fed. Reg. 46,936; 46,960-61 (1985) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 141).
28. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars1.html〉;
29. Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
30. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
31. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-339, 100 Stat. 642 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 42 US.C. §§ 300 f to 300 j-11 (1982 & Supp. IV 1986)).
32. 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b)(3)(A) (Supp. IV 1986).
33. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars1.html〉;
34. Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
35. See Draft Water Quality Criteria Methodology Revisions: Human Health, 63 Fed. Reg. 43,756; 43,758 (1998).
36. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars1.html〉.
37. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 4 (1988).
39. See id.
40. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars1.html〉.
41. See id.
42. See id.
43. See id.; Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 6.
44. See id.
45. See id.
46. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 8.
47. See id.
48. The primary work was called the "Smith Study." See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars1.html〉;
49. Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 8.
50. See National Revised Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 48 Fed. Reg. 45,502; 45,502 (1983) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R, pt. 141).
51. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars /ars1.html〉.
52. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 8.
53. See id.; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 21 (1988).
54. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 8.
55. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars1.html〉.
56. See id.
57. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars1.html〉; Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 109(a)(12) (A), 110 Stat 1613, 1627-28 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
58. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars /ars1.html〉.
59. H.R. CONF. REP. NO. 104-741, at 85 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1366, 1432.
60. See id. at 1435.
61. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 109(a)(12)(A), 110 Stat. 1613, 1627-28 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 US.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)); § 103, 110 Stat. at 1621-22.
62. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 109(a)(12)(A), 110 Stat. 1613, 1627-28 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 US.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)); Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic In Drinking Water: Regulatory History (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov /OGWDW/ars/ars1.html〉.
63. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Drinking Water Priority Rulemaking: Arsenic (last modified June 16, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ arsenic.html〉; Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 101, 110 Stat. 1613, 1616-17 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 f (West Supp. 1998)).
64. See id.
65. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 3, 110 Stat. 1613, 1614-15 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. 300 f (West Supp. 1998)).
66. The research plan was only finalized by the February 25, 1998, Stakeholder's Meeting. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Executive Summary Stakeholder's Meeting: Arsenic in Drinking Water, Wednesday, February 25, 1998, San Antonio, TX (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ndwac/sum_as2.html〉.
67. See id.
68. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 104, 110 Stat. 1613, 1625 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1 (b) (West Supp. 1998)).
69. "Drafters of legislation should be particularly careful about introducing scientifically inappropriate standards...in light of the relative permanence of...standards. While there is nothing in theory which sets environmental...standards in stone, in practice they are rarely revised...The few cases where EPA has sought to relax existing standards were the source of intense controversy and litigation." Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 ECOLOGY L. Q. 269, 352 (1992).
70. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Executive Summary Stakeholder's Meeting Summary: Arsenic in Drinking Water, September 11-12, 1997 (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ndwac/sum_as1.html〉.
71. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Executive Summary Stakeholder's Meeting: Arsenic in Drinking Water, Wednesday, February 25, 1998, San Antonio, TX (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/ OGWDW/ndwac/sum_as2.html〉.
72. See id.
73. See id.
74. See id.
75. H.R. CONF. REP. NO. 104-741, at 85 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1366, 1432.
76. S. Rep. No. 104-169, at 39-40 (1995).
77. Id. at 30.
78. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Arsenic Research Plan (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars9.html〉.
79. See id.
80. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Executive Summary Stakeholder's Meeting Summary: Arsenic in Drinking Water, September 11-12, 1997 (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ndwac/sum_as1.html〉.
81. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Executive Summary Stakeholder's Meeting: Arsenic in Drinking Water, Wednesday, February 25, 1998, San Antonio, TX (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/ OGWDW/ndwac/sum_as2.html〉.
82. See Draft Water Quality Criteria Methodology Revisions: Human Health, 63 Fed. Reg. 43,756; 43,756 (1998).
83. See id.
84. See id. at 43,759.
85. See id. at 43,758.
86. See id.
87. See id. at 43,763.
88. Id. at 43,769.
89. See Frederick W. Pontius et al. Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 52.
90. See id.
91. See id. at 52-53.
92. See id. at 53.
93. See id.
94. See id.
95. See id.
96. See id.
97. See id.
98. See id.
99. See id.
100. See id.
101. See id.
102. See id.
103. See id. at 54.
104. See id.
105. See Janet G. Hering et al., Arsenic Removal by Ferric Chloride, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Apr. 1996, at 155, 156.
106. See id.
107. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 54.
108. See id.
109. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Occurrence of Arsenic (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars /ars5.html〉.
110. See id.
111. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Occurrence of Arsenic in Ground Water - USGS Activities (last modified Nov. 17, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars6.html〉.
112. See Michelle M. Frey & Marc A. Edwards, Surveying Arsenic Occurrence, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1997, at 105, 105.
113. See id.
114. See id.
115. See id.
116. See id. at 107.
117. See id.
118. See id.
119. See US. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 21 (1988).
120. See Denise D. Fort, State and Tribal Water Quality Standards Under the Clean Water Act: A Case Study, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 771, 772 (1995).
121. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept 1994, at 52, 56.
122. An acute exposure event occurred in Perham, Minnesota, in 1972 when 11 persons were exposed to arsenic concentrations of 2,100 to 11,800 μg/L from their employer's water well over a 10-week period. Three of the employees experienced signs of subacute and chronic poisoning. See id. at 57.
123. See id. at 56.
124. See id. at 55-56.
125. See id. at 56.
126. See id.; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 1 (1988).
127. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 56.
128. See id.
129. See id.
130. See id.
131. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 21 (1988).
132. See id.
133. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 57.
134. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Health Effects Research (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars10.html〉.
135. See id.
136. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 59.
137. See id. at 54.
138. See id. at 55.
139. See id.
140. See id.
141. See id. at 54.
142. See id.
143. See id.
144. See id.
145. See id.
146. See id. at 55.
147. See id.
148. See id.
149. See id.
150. See id.
151. See id.
152. See id.
153. See id.
154. See id.
155. See id.
156. See id.
157. See id.
158. See id.
159. See id.
160. See id.
161. See id.
162. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Health Effects Research (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars10.htm〉.
163. See Marc Edwards et al., Considerations in As Analysis and Speciation, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 103, 112.
164. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATERWORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 55.
165. See Priorities for the Reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Health and Environment of the House of Representatives Committee on Commerce, 104th Cong. 149-151 (1996)
166. (report by Paul Mushak & Annemarie F. Crocetti entitled Risk and Revisionism in Arsenic Cancer Risk Assessment).
167. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Health Effects Research (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars10.html〉;
168. Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 54.
169. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Health Effects Research (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars10.html〉.
170. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 59.
171. See id. at 60.
172. See id.
173. See id.
174. See id.
175. See id.
176. See id. at 57.
177. See id.
178. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Health Effects Research (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ ars10.html〉.
179. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 57.
180. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 13 (1988).
181. See id.
182. See id. at 14.
183. See id.
184. Priorities for the Reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Health and Environment of the House of Representatives Committee on Commerce, 104th Cong. 93 (1996) (statement of Gregory Wetstone, Legislative Director, Natural Resources Defense Council).
185. Id. at 99.
186. Id. at 101.
187. Id. at 131.
188. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Treatment Techologies, Removal (last modified Dec. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars4.html〉.
189. See id.
190. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 ECOLOGY L. Q. 269, 310-11 (1992).
191. See id.
192. See Janet G. Hering et al., Arsenic Removal by Ferrie Chloride, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Apr. 1996, at 155, 166;
193. Marc Edwards et al., Considerations in As Analysis and Speciation, J. AM. WATERWORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 103, 112.
194. See id.
195. See Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 10.
196. See Marc Edwards et al., Considerations in As Analysis and Speciation, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 103, 103.
197. See generally id.
198. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 2 (1988).
199. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 61.
200. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Drinking Water Standards Development (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/ OGWDW/ars/ars2.html〉.
201. See id.
202. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 61.
203. See Robert Harris et al., Risk Assessment in the Remedy Selection Process at Hazardous Waste Sites, SC27 A.L.I.-A.B.A. 249, 259 (1997).
204. See id.
205. See id.
206. See id.
207. See id.
208. See id.
209. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Proposed Carcinogen Risk Assessment Guidelines and MCLG Determinations (last modified Nov. 17, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars8.html〉.
210. See Robert Harris et al., Risk Assessment in the Remedy Selection Process at Hazardous Waste Sites, SC27 A.L.I.-A.B.A. 249, 262 (1997).
211. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 ECOLOGY L. Q. 269, 279 (1992).
212. See id.
213. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 306 (1994);
214. Richard Doll & Richard Peto, The Causes of Cancer: Quantitative Estimates of Avoidable Risks of Cancer in the United States Today, 66 J. NAT'L CANCER INST. 1191 (1981)
215. quoted in John F. Ross, Risk Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 50.
216. See John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 50.
217. "As a class of chemicals these compounds are referred to as trihalomethanes or disinfection byproducts. One recently published summary of peer-reviewed health studies estimated that approximately 15 percent of the bladder and rectal cancers (10,000 cases per year) in the United States are caused by these compounds in drinking water supplies." S. Rep. No. 104-169, at 6 (1995). See supra text II.B.5, this cancer risk is the source of the NRDC concerns expressed in their testimony before Congress, to which they erroneously added the hypothetical, but undemonstrated arsenic cancer risk.
218. See William E. Cox, Evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act: A Search for Effective Quality Assurance Strategies and Workable Concepts of Federalism, 21 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL'Y REV. 69, 85 (1997).
219. See id.
220. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 348 (1992).
221. See William E. Cox, Evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act: A Search for Effective Quality Assurance Strategies and Workable Concepts of Federalism, 21 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL'Y REV. 69, 96 (1997).
222. See generally Frederick W. Pontius, Crafting a New Arsenic Rule, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 6, 8.
223. See id.
224. See Robert S. Raucher et al., Cost-Effectiveness of SDWA Regulations, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Aug. 1994, at 28, 30.
225. See id.
226. See id.; TERRY DINAN, THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT: A CASE STUDY OF AN UNFUNDED FEDERAL MANDATE, A CBO Study 28 (1995).
227. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 21 (1988).
228. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Drinking Water Standards Development (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars2.html〉.
229. For example, if the city of Albuquerque uses the ion exchange treatment method, this may require about 1 ton of input salt per million gallons treated. On a peak summer day, the City may be required to treat 190 million gallons, thus requiring purchase, shipment, and storage of 190 tons of salt per day. In addition to the railroad cars of salt required, there will be ancillary costs, such as trucks, drivers, storage buildings, etc., to store, manage, and distribute that much salt to each groundwater well system on a daily basis. The waste generated would probably be a higher volume of brines and/or sludges requiring the reverse handling expenses and resources. Interview with John M. Stomp, P.E., Manager of Water Resources, Public Works Department, City of Albuquerque, in Albuquerque, N.M. (Oct. 8, 1998).
230. See Robert S. Raucher et al., Cost-Effectiveness of SDWA Regulations, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Aug. 1994, at 28, 31.
231. See generally Michelle M. Frey et al., Cost to Utilities of A Lower MCL for Arsenic, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 89, 89-102.
232. See id. at 89.
233. See id.
234. See id. at 89, 94.
235. See id. at 91.
236. See id.
237. See id. at 91, 97.
238. See id. at 91.
239. See id. at 92-93.
240. See id. at 94.
241. See id at 96.
242. See id. at 97.
243. Since 15 averted cancers is the estimate for 20 ppb, I used an estimate of 25 treatable cancers avoided for 10 ppb, multiplied by 70 years and by the total annual cost of $0.8 billion.
244. Michelle M. Frey et al., Cost to Utilities of a tower MCL for Arsenic, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 89, 100.
245. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 104, 110 Stat. 1613, 1623-24 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
246. See Robert S. Raucher et al., Cost-Effectiveness of SDWA Regulations, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Aug. 1994, at 28, 33.
247. See id. at 34.
248. See id. at 32.
249. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 123, 110 Stat. 1613, 1652-53 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g (West Supp. 1998)).
250. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 104, 110 Stat. 1613, 1625 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
251. See generally Resource Conservation Recovery Act of 1976, 42 U.S.C. §§ 6901-6979 (1994).
252. For example, there are no permitted disposal facilities in the state of New Mexico, so all hazardous wastes must be shipped out every 90 days or annually if the generation facility has a storage permit (personal knowledge of author).
253. See 42 U.S.C. § 6924(d)-(g) (1994).
254. Native American tribes are treated as states under the SDWA. Safe Drinking Water Act, § 42 U.S.C. § 300 f(10) (1994).
255. See Denise D. Fort, State and Tribal Water (Quality Standards Under the Clean Water Act: A Case Study, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 771, 774 (1995).
256. See Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997, 1013 (1995).
257. See id. at 1013-14.
258. See Denise D. Fort, State and Tribal Water Quality Standards Under the Clean Water Act: A Case Study, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 771, 774 (1995); CAPLAN, supra note 2, at 5.
259. See Mark A. Bilut, Albuquerque v. Browner, Native American Tribal Authority Under the Clean Water Act: Raging Like a River Out of Control, 45 SYRACUSE L. REV. 887, 896 (1994).
260. See id. at 900.
261. See id.
262. See Denise D. Fort, State and Tribal Water Quality Standards Under the Clean Water Act: A Case Study, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 771, 774 (1995);
263. Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997, 1014 (1995).
264. See Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997, 998 (1995).
265. For a complete discussion of this interaction see generally, Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997(1995);
266. Mark A. Bilut, Albuquerque v. Browner, Native American Tribal Authority Under the Clean Water Act: Raging Like a River Out of Control, 45 SYRACUSE L. REV. 887, 896 (1994);
267. and Denise D. Fort, State and Tribal Water Quality Standards Under the Clean Water Act: A Case Study, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 771, 774 (1995).
268. See Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997 (1995).
269. See id. at 1003.
270. One unfortunate benefit of a lowered MCL for arsenic on influent water will be an enhanced capability of the city of Albuquerque to meet its NPDES requirements, driven by the Pueblo of Isleta Water Quality Standard of 17 parts per trillion, since the influent water is easier to clean of dissolved arsenic than complex sewage waters. Interview with Greg P. Smith, Attorney, City of Albuquerque, in Albuquerque, N.M. (Sept. 10, 1998). However, the City would be better off if the Pueblo standard and the NPDES permit requirements were based on a rational assessment of safe levels of arsenic and not hypothetical projections from a single questionable study.
271. 42 U.S.C. § 9621(d)(2)(A) (1994).
272. Ohio v. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 997 F.2d 1520 (D.C. Cir. 1993).
273. "Where congressional intent on the precise question at issue is unclear, it is enough that the Agency's construction is reasonable." Chevron v. Natural Resource Defense Council, 467 US 837 (1984), cited in Ohio, 997 F.2d at 1527.
274. See Ohio, 997 F.2d at 1529.
275. "Such remedial action shall require a level or standard of control which at least attains Maximum Contaminant Level Goals established under the Safe Drinking Water Act...where such goals or criteria are relevant and appropriate under the circumstances of the release or threatened release." 42 U.S.C. § 9621 (d)(2)(A), cited in Ohio, 997 F.2d at 1529.
276. See Ohio, 997 F.2d at 1,530.
277. See GEORGE A. GOULD & DOUGLAS L. GRANT, CASES AND MATERIALS ON WATER LAW 6 (5th ed. 1995).
278. See id.
279. See id. at 10.
280. See e.g., Washington Dep't of Ecology v. Grimes, 852 P.2d 1044 (Wash. 1993).
281. See Charles T. DuMars & A. Dan Tarlock, Symposium Introduction: New Challenges to State Water Allocation Sovereignty, 29 NAT. RESOURCES J. 331, 341-42 (1989).
282. See Charles T. DuMars & Michelle Minnis, New Mexico Water Law: Determining Public Welfare Values in Water Rights Allocation, 31 ARIZ. L. REV. 817, 834-39 (1989).
283. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 130, 110 Stat. 1613, 1664-65 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 j et. seq. (West Supp. 1998)).
284. See id. at 1666.
285. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 122-123, 110 Stat. 1613, 1651-53 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 j-1(3) and § 300 g et. seq. (West Supp. 1998)).
286. See James Bourne & Veronica Blette, Greater Funding Opportunities for Drinking Water Systems, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, May 1998, at 34, 35.
287. See id.
288. See id. at 35-36.
289. See id. at 37.
290. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 123, 110 Stat. 1613, 1652 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g et. seq. (West Supp. 1998)).
291. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 130, 110 Stat. 1613, 1665 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 j et. seq. (West Supp. 1998)).
292. See id. at 1664-65.
293. See James Bourne & Veronica Blette, Greater Funding Opportunities for Drinking Water Systems, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, May 1998, at 34, 36.
294. See id.
295. See id. at 38.
296. See id.
297. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 116, 110 Stat. 1613, 1641-44 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-4 (West Supp. 1998)).
298. See id.
299. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 116, 110 Stat. 1613, 1641-42 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-4 (West Supp. 1998)).
300. See TERRY DINAN, THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT: A CASE STUDY OF AN UNFUNDED FEDERAL MANDATE, A CBO Study 38 (1995).
301. See Robert S. Raucher et al., Cost-Effectiveness of SDWA Regulations, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Aug. 1994, at 28, 35.
302. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 117, 110 Stat. 1613, 1644-45 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-5 (West Supp. 1998)).
303. See id.
304. See id.
305. See id.
306. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 335 (1994).
307. United States v. City of North Adams, No. Civ.A.89-30048-F, 1992 WL 391318 (D. Mass. May 18, 1992).
308. See id. at 5.
309. See id. at 1, 3.
310. See id. at 3.
311. See id. at 4.
312. See id.
313. Impact of Safe Drinking Water Act Regulations on Small Drinking Water Systems: Hearing Before the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources Subcomm. of the House Comm. on Government Operations, 103rd Cong. 81-82 (1994) (statement of Wendell Ellis, Owner and Operator, Quail Creek Water System, Spicewood, Tex.).
314. See Clive Davies et al., USEPA's Infrastructure Needs Survey, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Dec. 1997, at 30, 37.
315. See id.
316. See id.
317. See id.
318. See id.
319. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 135, 307, 110 Stat. 1613, 1679-80, 1688-89 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 j et. seq. (West Supp. 1998)).
320. See id. at § 304, 110 Stat. at 1684.
321. H.R. CONF. REP. NO. 104-741, at 131 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1366, 1428.
322. See Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997, 1015 (1995).
323. See id.
324. See Alon Rosenthal et al.. Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 336 (1992).
325. 141 CONG. REC. S1316 (daily ed. Nov. 29, 1995) (statement of Senator Cohen, cosponsor of the bill).
326. See Cyndi Mojtabai, Arsenic and Old Lace: The EPA Should Not Have Approved a Water Quality Standard for Arsenic that is Below Natural Background Levels in City of Albuquerque v. Browner, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 997, 1015 (1995).
327. See id. at 1016.
328. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 306-07 (1994).
329. See Robert Harris et al., Rist Assessment in the Remedy Selection Process at Hazardous Waste Sites, SC27 A.L.I.-A.B.A. 249, 253 (1997).
330. See Alon Rosenthal, et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 271 (1992).
331. See id. at 296-97.
332. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. § 348(c)(3)(A) (1994).
333. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 286 (1992).
334. See id. at 298.
335. "Today, two-thirds of the more than 800 chemicals tested so far have been found to cause or promote tumors in rodents. Yet more than 50,000 synthetic chemicals remain untested." John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 46.
336. See James Trefil, How the Body. Defends Itself From the Risky Business of Living, SMITHSONIAN, Dec. 1995, at 43, 48.
337. See id.
338. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 354 (1992).
339. See id.
340. See id. at 355.
341. See id. at 356.
342. [T]here should be some acknowledgement that zero risk is seldom necessary or achievable." Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1995: Hearing Before the Senate Comm. on Environment and Public Works, 104th Cong. 6 (1995) (opening statement of Sen. Craig Thomas).
343. Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. v. Environment Protection Agency, 598 F.2d 62, 88 (D.C. Cir. 1978).
344. Id. at 89.
345. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L Q. 269, 276, 282 (1992).
346. See id. at 277.
347. See id. at 294.
348. Illinois Pure Water Comm., Inc. v. Director Pub. Health, 470 N.E.2d 988 (Ill. 1984).
349. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 276, 284 (1992).
350. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 325 (1994).
351. See Natural Resources Defense Council et al., Trouble on Tap: Arsenic, Radioactive Radon and Trihalomethanes in Our Drinking Water, cited in Deborah Wenger, It Depends on Whom You Ask: How Safe Is Drinking Water?, ENVTL. COMPLIANCE & LITIG. STRATEGY, Nov. 1995, at 9, 9 (1995).
352. See id.; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/3-87/013, SPECIAL REPORT ON INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC SKIN CANCER; NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY 21 (1988).
353. See Natural Resources Defense Council et al., Trouble on Tap: Arsenic, Radioactive Radon and Trihalomethanes in Our Drinking Water, cited in Deborah Wenger, It Depends on Whom You Ask: How Safe Is Drinking Water?, ENVTL. COMPLIANCE & LITIG. STRATEGY, Nov. 1995, at 9, 9 (1995).
354. See id.
355. Ohio v. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 997 F.2d 1520 (D.C. Cir. 1993).
356. Id. at 1530 citing 55 Fed. Reg. 8752, 8752 (1990).
357. Id. citing 50 Fed. Reg. 46,884, 46,897 (1985).
358. Id. citing 49 Fed. Reg. 24,330, 24,347 (1984).
359. See id.
360. International Fabricate Inst. v. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 972 F.2d 384, 390 (D.C. Cir. 1992).
361. See id. at 391.
362. See id. at 391-93.
363. See id. at 393.
364. See id. at 391-92.
365. See id. at 398.
366. Id. at 399.
367. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Environmental Protection Agency, 824 F.2d 1211 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
368. See id. at 1215.
369. See id. at 1217.
370. See id. at 1216.
371. See id.
372. See id. at 1217-19.
373. See Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Environmental Protection Agency, 812 F.2d 721 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
374. See id. at 724.
375. Id. citing 50 Fed. Reg. 47,142; 47,144; 47,147; 47,151-52 (1985).
376. See id. at 724.
377. See id. at 725.
378. See id.
379. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 326 (1994).
380. See id. at 327.
381. See id. at 307, 335.
382. See id. at 330, 335.
383. See John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 43.
384. See id. at 43-45.
385. See id.
386. See id. at 46.
387. See James Trefil, How the Body Defends Itself From the Risky Business of Living, SMITHSONIAN, Dec. 1995, at 43, 47.
388. See id. at 47.
389. See id.
390. See John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 43, 44.
391. See id.
392. See id. at 47.
393. See id.
394. See id.
395. See id. at 48.
396. See id.
397. See id.
398. See id. at 45.
399. See id. at 45-46.
400. Dr. Vernon Houk, Centers for Disease Control, Address at the New Mexico Hazardous Waste Society Annual Meeting (Mar. 1989). The one in a million risk level is the lowest level chosen by EPA to select an MCL for drinking water contaminants. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Drinking Water Standards Development (last modified June 3, 1998) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars2.html〉.
401. See John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 45.
402. See id. at 46.
403. See id.
404. See id.
405. See TERRY DINAN, THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT: A CASE STUDY OF AN UNFUNDED FEDERAL MANDATE, A CBO Study 28, n.4 (1995).
406. See id.
407. See John F. Ross, Risk: Where Do Real Dangers Lie?, SMITHSONIAN, Nov. 1995, at 42, 47.
408. See id. at 50.
409. See id.
410. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 325 (1994).
411. See James Trefil, How the Body Defends Itself from the Risky Business of Living, SMITHSONIAN, Dec. 1995, at 43, 48.
412. See William E. Cox, Evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act: A Search for Effective Quality Assurance Strategies and Workable Concepts of Federalism, 21 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL'Y REV. 69, 163 (1997).
413. See Robert W. Hahn, United States Environmental Policy: Past, Present and Future, 34 NAT. RESOURCES J. 305, 347 (1994).
414. See Alon Rosenthal et al., Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals, 19 Ecology L. Q. 269, 353 (1992).
415. See id. at 355.
416. See id. at 339, 341, 343.
417. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 3, 110 Stat. 1613, 1615 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 f (West Supp. 1998)).
418. Id.
419. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 103, 110 Stat. 1613, 1621 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300
420. H.R. CONF. REP. NO. 104-741, at 129 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1366, 1426.
421. Id. at 88, 1435.
422. See Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 3, 110 Stat. 1613, 1614-15 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 f (West Supp. 1998)).
423. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 103, 110 Stat. 1613, 1621 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 US.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
424. The AWWA "knee of the curve" analysis determined that the point at which costs are optimized is an arsenic standard of 20 or 30 ppb. See Michelle M. Frey et al., Cost to Utilities of A Lower MCL for Arsenic, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 89, 100.
425. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, § 104, 110 Stat. 1613, 1624 (1996) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 300 g-1(b) (West Supp. 1998)).
426. See Frederick W. Pontius et al., Health Implications of Arsenic in Drinking Water, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Sept. 1994, at 52, 56.
427. See Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USEPA, Arsenic in Drinking Water: Treatment Technologies, Removal (last modified Dec 3, 1997) 〈http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ ars/ars4.html〉.
428. See id.
429. See id.
430. See id.
431. See id.
432. See id.
433. See id.
434. See id.
435. See id.
436. See id.
437. See id.
438. See id.
439. See id.
440. See id.
441. See id.
442. See id.
443. See id.
444. See id.
445. See id.
446. See id.
447. See id.
448. See id.
449. See id.
450. See id.
451. See id.
452. See id.
453. See id.
454. See id.
455. See id.
456. See id.
457. See id.
458. See id.
459. See id.
460. See id.
461. See id.
462. See id.
463. See Marc Edwards et al., Considerations in As Analysis and Speciation, J. AM. WATER WORKS ASS'N, Mar. 1998, at 103, 103.
464. See id.
465. See id. at 112.