The religious and cultural roles of dreams and visions in Islam

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 287-313

  Green, Nile ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33749436464     PISSN: 13561863     EISSN: 14740591     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1356186303003110     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. R. F. Burton, Sindh and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus (Karachi, 1973 [1851]), p. 409.
2. For general accounts of the dream in Islam, see U. Azam, Dreams in Islam (Pittsburgh, 1992).
3. T. Fahd, 'The Dream in Medieval Islamic Society', in G. E. von Grunebaum and R. Caillois (eds), The Dream and Human Societies (Berkeley, 1966)
4. A. Schimmel, Die Träune des Kalifen: Träune und ihre Deutung in der islamischen Kultur (Munich, 1998)
5. and H. Ziai, 'Dreams and Dream Interpretation' in Encyclopaedia Iranica (hereafter EI).
6. See O. L. Oppenheim, The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient Near East (Philadelphia, 1956).
7. Qur'ān 12:1-100. On the interaction of Jewish and Muslim oneirocriticisni, see S. Suiri, 'Dreaming Analyzed and Recorded Dreams in the World of Medieval Islam', in D. Schulman and G. G. Stroumsa (eds), Dream Cultures: Explorations in the Comparative History of Dreaming (Oxford, 1999).
8. See E. R. Dodds, The Creeks and the Irrational (Berkeley, 1951), Chapter Four, 'Dream Pattern and Culture Pattern'.
9. See Artemidorus, Oneirocritica: The Interpretation of Dreams by Artemidorus, trans. R.J. White (Park Ridge, 1975)
10. and C. Blum, Studies on the Dream Book of Artemidorus (Uppsala, 1936).
11. See A. E. Afifi, "The Influence of Hermetic Literature on Muslim Thought", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 13 (1950)
12. S. M. Oberhelman, The Oneirocriticon of Achmet: A Medieval Greek and Arabic Treatise on the Interpretation of Dreams (Lubbock, 1991)
13. and S. Pines, "The Arabic Recension of Parva Naturalia and the Philosophical Doctrine Concerning Veridical Dreams According to al-Risāla al-.Manāmiyya and Other Sources", Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974).
14. See T. Fahd, "istikliāra" in EI2.
15. See R. Jacobi, "Qasīeda" in J. S. Meisami and P. Starkey (eds), Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature (London, 1998), p. 631.
16. See L. Kinberg, "Dreams and Sleep", in J. Dammen McAuliffe (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān (Leiden, 2001), vol. 1, pp. 546-553.
17. A.J. Wensinck, Concordance et Indices de la Tradition Musuhnane (Leiden, 1936-1969), vol. 1, p. 343.
18. See also L. Kinberg, "Interaction Between This World and the Afterworld in Early Islamic Traditions", Oriens 29-30 (1986).
19. A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of lbn Ishāq's Sīrat Rasūl Allāh (Karachi, 1967), p. 236.
20. See T. Fahd and H. Daiber, "ru'yā, in Eh.
21. See Fahd in von Grunebaum and Caillois (1966), pp. 360-363.
22. See also Ibn Sīrīn, Das Arabische Traumbuch des Ibn Sīrīn, trans. H. Klopfer (Munich, 1989).
23. Nizam Ad-Dīn Awliya, Morals for the Heart, trans. B.B. D. Lawrence (New York, 1992), p. 174.
24. See H. Hosain, "A Treatise on the Interpretation of Dreams", Islamic Culture 6, 4 (1932).
25. T. Fahd and H. Daiber in EI2.
26. Al-Nadim,' The Fihrist of al-Nadim: A Tenth Century Survey of Muslim Culture, 2 vols, trans. B. Dodge (New York, 1970), p. 742.
27. Quoted in J. G. Katz, Dreams, Sufism and Sainthood: The Visionary Career of Muhammad al-Zawāwī (Leiden, 1996), p. 205.
28. See I. Goldziher, "The Appearance of the Prophet in Dreams", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1921).
29. See Hadrat 'Alī, Nahj al-balāghah (Tihrān, Chihil Sutūn, n.d.), Khūtbah 73, p. 43.
30. See T. Fahd, La Divination Arabe (Strasbourg, 1966), pp. 51-60
31. and M. W. Ur-Rahman, "Al-Fārābī and his Theory of Dreams", Islamic Culture 10 (1936).
32. See T. Fahd (1966), pp. 51-60 and T. Fahd and H. Daiber in EI2.
33. Al-Nadim (1970), pp. 583-584.
34. See B. Schrieke, J. Horovitz, J. E. Bencheikh, J. Knappert and B. W. Robinson, "mi'rādj", in EI2.
35. See N. El-Azma, "Some notes on the impact of the story of the Mi'raj on Sufi literature", Muslim World 63 (1973).
36. On dreams and hadīth, see L. Kinberg, "The Legitimation of the Madhahib Through Dreams", Anbica 32 (1985)
37. idem, "Literal Dreams and Prophetic Hadith in Classical Islam - A Comparison of Two Ways of Legitimation", Der Islam 70, 2 (1993)
38. and idem, Ibn Abī al-Dunyā: Morality in the Guise of Dreams (Leiden, 1994).
39. See e.g. A. K. Tuft, "The ru'ya controversy and the interpretation of Qur'an verse 7 (al-A'af): 143", Hamdard Islamiais 6, 3 (1983).
40. See G. Besson and M. Brossard-Dandré (ed. & trans.), Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet: Liber Scale Machometi (Paris, 1991).
41. See M. Asídn Palacios, Islam and the Divine Comedy (London, 1926).
42. See M. M. Uwise, "Muslim Literary Forms in Tamil Literature", Proceedings of the Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, vol.1 (Madras, 1968), pp. 182-189
43. and U. Marzolph, "Persian Popular Literature in the Qajar Period", Asian Folklore Studies 60, 2 (2001), p. 231.
44. The twenty-nine known pages of this manuscript, attributed to the painters Āqā Mīrak and 'Abd al-'Azīz at the court of Shāh Tahmāsp, are now dispersed among several collections. The painting of the mi'rāj referred to is now in the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington.
45. See J-C. Blanc, Afghan Trucks (London, 1976).
46. See M. A. Sells (trans, and ed.), Early Islamic Mysticism (New York, 1996), pp. 212-250.
47. Khwājah 'Abd Allāh Ansārī, Tabaqāt al-sūfiyyah, ed. A. H. Habībī (Kābul, 1404/1983), pp. 196-197.
48. Quoted in R. Islam, Sufism in Soutl Asia: Impact on Fourteenth Century Muslim Society (Karachi, 2002), pp. 27-28.
49. See S. Kugle, "Heavens Witness: the Uses and Abuses of Muhammad Ghawth Gwaliori's Ascension", Journal of Islamic Studies 4, 1 (2003).
50. See Ali Din Uthman al-Hujwiri, The Kashf al Mahjub: The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism, trans. R. A. Nicholson (Delhi, 1999), especially pp. 88-160.
51. See R. Gramlich, Die Gaiben der Erkenntnisse des 'Umar al-Suhrawardī - 'Awārif al-ma'ārif (Wiesbaden, 1978). Muhammad al-Husaynī Gēsū Darāz, Asmār al-asrār, ed. 'Atā' Allāh Husaynī (Haydarābād, 1350f/1971-2).
52. Sohrawardi, Le Line de la Sagesse Orientate [Kitâb Hikmat al-Ishrâq], trans. H. Corbin (Paris, 1986).
53. See H. Corbin, Avicenne et le récit visionnaire (Paris, 1952).
54. See M. Amin Razavi, Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination (Richmond, 1997)
55. E Rahman, "Dream, Imagination and 'Ālam al-Mithāl, in von Grunebaum and Caillois (1966)
56. and H. Ziai, Knowledge and Illumination: A Study of Snhrawardī's Hikmat al-Ishrāq (Atlanta, 1990).
57. See M. Y. Hairi, "Suhrawardī's An Episode and a Trance: A Philosophical Dialogue in a Mystical Stage", in P. Morewedge (ed.), Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism (Delmar, 1981).
58. See J. J. Elias, "A Kubrawī Treatise on Mystical Visions: The Risāla-yi Nūriyya of'Alā' ad-Dawla as- Simnānī ", Muslim World 83, 1 (1993).
59. See N. Green, "A New Translation of Suhrawardi's TheCrimson Archangel ('Aqt-e-Surkh)", Sufi 36 (1998).
60. See Suhrawardī, The Mystical and Visionary Treatises of Suhrawardi, trans. W. M. Thackston (London, 1982)
61. and G. Webb, "An Exegesis of Suhrawardi's The Purple Intellect ('Aql-i surkh)", Islamic Quarterly 26, 4 (1982).
62. See W. C. Chittick, Imaginal Worlds: Ibn Arabī and the Problem of Religious Diversity (Albany, 1994)
63. and H.Corbin, Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn al-'Arabī (Princeton, 1969).
64. On the imagination in Arabic philosophical tradition, see J. S. Meisami, "Imagination", in Meisami and Starkey (1998), pp. 393-394.
65. See e.g. W. C. Chittick, "Notes on Ibn 'Arabī's Influence in the Indian Sub-Continent", Muslim World 82 (1992).
66. See C. W. Ernst, "The Spirit of Islamic Calligraphy: I3aba Shah Isfahani s Adab al-mashq" Journal of the American Oriental Society 112 (1992), pp. 279-286.
67. Ibn 'Arabī, The Bezels of Wisdom, trans. R. W. J. Austin (Lahore, 1988), pp. 98-103 and 120-127.
68. On Ibn 'Arabī and dreams, see also W. C. Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge (Albany, 1989), pp. 119-121.
69. See G. N. Jalbani and D. 13. Fry (trans, and ed.), Sufism and the Islamic Tradition: The Lamahat and Sata'at of Shah Waliullah (London, 1980), pp. 112-114.
70. This is based on the authors own observations with regard to Iran and India. For Pakistan, see K. P. Ewing, "The Dream of Spiritual Initiation and the Organization of Self Representation among Pakistani Sufis", American Ethnologist 17, I (1990)
71. and idem, Arguing Sainthood: Modernity, Psychoanalysis, and Islam (Durham, 1997).
72. On similar processes in Morocco and Egypt, see V. Crapanzano, "Saints, Jnūn, and Dreams: An Essay in Moroccan Ethnopsychology" , Psychiatry 38 (1975)
73. and E. Sirriyeh, "Dreams of the Holy Dead: Traditional Islamic Oneirocriticism Versus Salafi Scepticism", Journal of Semitic Studies 45, 1 (2000).
74. S. Kakar, Shamans, .Mystics and Doctors: A Psychological Inquiry into India and its Healing Traditions (Delhi, 1990), pp. 15-52.
75. See M. Chodkiewicz, Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn 'Arabī (Cambridge, 1993), P 17
76. On Ibn 'Arabīs visions more generally, see C. Addas, La Quête du soufre rouge (Paris, 1989)
77. and W. C. Chittick, "Meetings with Imaginal Men", Sufi 19 (1993).
78. Ibn 'Arabī, Sufis of Andalusia, trans. R. W. J. Austin (London, 1971).
79. Chodkīewīcz (1993), pp. 17-18.
80. These reminiscences have been published in M. Homāyunī, Tārīkh-e-silsiliha-e-tarīqah-e-Ni'matullāhiyyah dar Irān (London, 1371/1992), pp. 267-268.
81. See M. Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Sociorcligious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse, 1982).
82. See N. Green, "Translating the Spoken Words of the Saints: Oral Literature and the Sufis of Awrangabad", in Lynne Long (ed.), Holy Untranslatable (London, forthcoming).
83. See Chittick, (1989), pp. xii-xv.
84. See R. A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism (Cambridge, 1921), pp. 90-92.
85. See J. J. Elias, The Throne Carrier of God: The Life and Thought of 'Alā ad-dawla as-Simnānī (New York, 1995), p. 192.
86. Muhammad Dārā Shikūh, Majma'-ul-Bahrain or the Mingling of Two Oceans, ed. M. Mahfuz-ul-Haq (Calcutta, 1929). PP 25-26.
87. See L. Ridgeon, 'Aziz Nasafi (Richmond, 1998), pp. 8-9.
88. See Elias (1993).
89. Elias (1995), PP 124-141
90. On the visionary techniques of the Kubrāwiyya, see Elias (1995). On Uways̄ mysticism, see J. Baldick, Imaginary Muslims: The Uwaysi Sufis of Central Asia (New York, 1993)
91. and D. DeWeese, "The Tadhkira-i Bughra-khan and the 'Uvaysi' Sufis of Central Asia: Notes in Review of Imaginary Muslims", Central Asiatic Journal 40, 1 (1996).
92. See A. S. Husaini, "Uways al-Qaranī and the Uwaysī Sufis", The Moslem World 57 (1967)
93. and K. Khaharia, "Uways al-Qarani, Visages d'une légende", Arabica 46, 2 (1999).
94. See Hujwiri (1999), pp. 83-84.
95. On such encounters with Khidr, see P. Franke, Begeginung mit Khidr: Quellenstudien zum in traditionellen Islam (Stuttgart, 2000) and I. Omar, "Khidr in Islamic Tradition", Muslim World 83 (1993).
96. See Y. Friedmann, Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindī (Montreal, 1971), pp. 27-28.
97. Baldick (1993).
98. See J. S. Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford, 1971), p. 159.
99. H. K. Sherwani, The Bahmanis of the Deccan (Delhi, 1985), p. 41. Since the Tughluq ruler died before 'Alā' al-dīn could meet him in battle, Uways may also here have played a role in protecting the martial reputation of the new ruler.
100. See Katz (1996), p. 220 and Kinberg (1994), pp. 36-37.
101. This was especially the case with Naqshbandī sūfīs, whose founder had also been an Uwaysī. See Baldick (1993), pp. 25-26 and p. 2y.
102. On the mediation of such experiences by sūfī masters in the modern period, see also A. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbaudi Brotherhood and the Rise of the Mediating Snfi Shaykh, (Columbia, 1998)
103. and L. Lewisohn, "An Introduction to the History of Modern Persian Sufism, Part II: A Sociocultural Profile of Sufism, from the Dhahabī Revival to the Present Day", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 62 (1999).
104. See M. A. Amir-Moezzi (ed.), Le Voyage initiatique en terre d'ishm: Ascensions célestes et itinéraires spirituels (Paris, 1996)
105. and K. P. Ewing, "The Dream of Spiritual Initiation and the Organization of Self Representation among Pakistani Sufis", American Ethnologist 17, 1 (1990).
106. Tārā Sāhib Qurēshī, Āftāb-e- Dahan (Awrangābād, c.1985), pp. 13-14. [Urdu]
107. Von Grunebaum and Caillois (1966), pp. 12-19.
108. - Mas'udi, The Meadows of Gold: The Abbasids, trans, and ed. P. Lunde and C. Stone (London, 1989), pp. 64-65.
109. On comparable lion dreams concerning sūfīs such as al-Hallāj (d.922), see L. Massignon, "Thèmes archétypiques en onirocritique musulmane", Eranos-Jahrbuch 12 (1945), pp. 244-246.
110. H. W. Duda, Die SeItschukengeschichte des Ibn Bībī (Copenhagen, 1959), pp. 101-104.
111. Zayn al-dīn Mahmūd Wāsafī, Badāī' al-waqāī' (Tihrān, 1350/1971), pp. 395-396.
112. See J. S. Meisami, The Sea of Precious Virtues (Bohr al-Fawā'id): A Medieval Islamic Mirror for Princes (Salt Lake City, 1991), pp. 284-292.
113. The miniature is found in a Siyār al-nabī preserved in the Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.
114. See S. A. Quinn, "The Dreams of Shaykh Safi al-Din and Safavid Historical Writing", Iranian Studies 29 (1996).
115. Quoted in S. Digby, "Tabarrukāt and Succession Among the Great Chishti Shaykhs of the Delhi Sultanate", in R. E. Frykenberg (ed.), Delhi Throught the Ages (Delhi, 1986), p. 103.
116. S. Digby, "Dreams and Reminiscences of Dattu Sarvani, a Sixteenth Century Indo-Afghan Soldier", Indian Economic and Social History Reeview 2 (1965).
117. Cf. C. Ginzberg, The Cheese and the Worms. The Cosmos of a Sixteenth Century Miller (Baltimore, 1992).
118. Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prime and Emperor, trans, and ed. W. M. Thackston (Washington and Oxford, 1996), p. 120.
119. th February 2003.
120. On such features of Sir Sayyid s thought, see D. D. Lawrence, "Mystical and Rational Elements in the Early Religious Writings of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan", in B B Lawrence (ed.), The Rose and the Rock: Mystical and Rational Elements in the Intellectual History of South Asian Islam (Durham, 1979).
121. th Century Eschatological Vision", Studia Islamica 79 (1994)-
122. For an annotated translation, see B. Radtke and J. O'Kane, The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism: Two Works by Al-Hakīm AI-Tirmidlī (London, 1996), pp. 15-36.
123. See also Suiri (1999), pp. 201-268.
124. Rūzbihān al-Baklī, Rūzbihān al-Baklī ve Kitāb Kasf al-asrār'I ile Farsça bāzi Siileri, ed. N. Hoca (Istanbul, 1971) [Arabic and Persian].
125. For an English translation, see C. W. Ernst, The Unveiling of Secrets: Diary of a Sufi Master (Chapel Hill, 1997).
126. See H. Corbin, En Islam Iranien: aspects spirituels et philosophiques. Tome 3, Les fidèles d'amour, slî'isme et soufisme (Paris, 1972), pp. 9-146
127. and C. W. Ernst, Rnzbihan Baqli: Mysticism and the Rhetoric of Sainthood in Persian Sufism (Richmond, 1996).
128. See J. M. S. Baljon, Religion and Thought of Shālt Walī Allāh Dihlawī, 1703-1762 (Leiden, 1986), p. 9.
129. See D. Terzioǧlu, "Man in the Image of God in the Image of the Times: Sufi Self-Narratives and the Diary of Niyazi-e-Misri (1618-94)", Studia Islamica 94 (2002), p. 157.
130. Trimingham (1971), pp. 220-225.
131. See also J. G. Katz, "An Egyptian Sufi Interprets His Dreams: 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha'rani, 1493-1565", Religion 27, 1 (1997).
132. For more on popular medieval pilgrimage and guidebooks to al-Qarāfah, see T. Ohtoshi, "The Manners, Customs and Mentality of Pilgrims to the Egyptian City of the Dead: 1100-1500 A.D.", Orient 29 (1993)
133. and C. S. Taylor, In the Vicinity of the Righteous: Ziyāra and the Veneration of Muslim Saints in Late Medieval Egypt (Leiden, 1999).
134. See W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, 2 vols (Westminster, 1896), vol. 1, p. 229. According to Crooke's informants, the saints become especially annoyed when "discovered in dé shabille" by unannounced visitors.
135. 'Azīz Nasafī, al-Insān al-kāmil, ed. M. Molé (Tihrān/Paris, 1962), pp. 236-237. The section is translated in Ridgeon (1998), p. 146.
136. Kalimullah Jahanabadi, The Scallop Shell, (Being a Snfite Practical Course on Divine Union) (Madras, 1910), PP 46-47.
137. Hadrat Shaykh Muhammad Ghawth Gwālīarī, Jawāhir-e-khamsah, trans. Muhammad Bēg Naqshband̄ (Dilbī, n.d.). [Urdu]
138. Mīr 'Alī Shīr Qanī, Mahlīnāma, ed. S. H. Rashdi (Haydarābād, 1907).
139. Quoted in A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent (Leiden, 1980), p. 127.
140. See A. Chlyeh, Les Gnaoua du Maroc: itinéraires initiatique, transe et possession (Casablanca, 1998), especially pp. 60-62.
141. See Homāyūnī (1371/1992), p. 267.
142. See e.g. T. Canaan, Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (London, 1927).
143. See R. D. McChesney, Waaf in Central Asia: Four Hundred Years in the History of a Muslim Shrine (Princeton, 1991).
144. See D. DeWeese, "Sayyid 'Alī Hamadānī and Kubrawī Hagiographical Traditions", in L. Lewisohn (ed.), The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism (Oxford, 1999), p. 149.
145. On such vision shrines, see J. Meri, The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria (Oxford, 2002) and Taylor (1999), pp. 32-33- As is sometimes revealed in foundation inscriptions, mosques founded as the result of visions also existed.
146. See G.J. van Gelder, "Dream Towns of Islam: Geography in Arabic Oneirocritical Works", in A. Neuwirth (ed.), Myths, Historical Archetypes and Symbolic Figures in Arabic Literature: Towards a New' Hermeneutic Approach (Stuttgart, 1999).
147. See M. K. Hermansen, "Citing the Sights at the Holy Sights: Visionary Pilgrimage Narratives of Pre-Modern South Asian Sufis", in E. Waugh and F. M. Denny (eds.), Islamic Studies in America: Fazlur Rahman (Atlanta, 1997)
148. J. G. Katz, "Visionary Experience, Autobiography and Sainthood in North African Islam", Princeton Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1 (1992)
149. and F. Malti-Douglas, "Dreams, the Blind and the Semiotics of the Biographical Notice", Studia Islamica 51 (1980).
150. To this day Iranian sūfis still go on vision quests by passing the night beside the tomb of Abū Yazīd at Bistām. (Author's personal observation.)
151. See De Weese (1999).
152. Mary Turnbull (personal communication).
153. Farid al-din Attar, Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya', trans. A.J. Arberry (London, 199). PP 93 and 165.
154. 'Abd al-Rahmān ibn Ahmad Jāmī, Nafahāt al-uns min hadarāt al-quds (Tihrān, 1375/1955), p. 432.
155. For details of visionary episodes in medieval and modern South Asian Muslim hagiography, see respectively B. B. Lawrence, Notes From a Distant Flute: The Extant Literature of Prc-Mughal Indian Sufism (Tehran, 1978)
156. and C. Liebeskind, Piety on its Knees: Three Sufi Traditions in South Asia in Modern Times (Delhi, 1998).
157. See Qamar-ul Huda, Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhrawardi Sūfīs (London, 2003), pp. 103-104.
158. See N. Green, "Stories of Saints and Sultans: the Oral Historical Tradition of the Aurangabad Shrines" Modern Asian Studies (forthcoming)
159. and T. K. Stewart, "Satya Pīr: Muslim Holy Man and Hindu God" in D. S. Lopez (ed.), Religions of India in Practice (Princeton, 1995).
160. Shāh Mahmūd Awrangābādī, Malfūzāt-e-Naqshbandiyyah: Hālāt-e-Hadrat Bābā Shāh Musāfir Sāhib (Haydarābād: Nizāmat-e-'Urnūr-e-Madhhabī-e-Sarkār-e-'Ālī, 1358/1939-40), p. 37.
161. See M. Gaborieau, "Criticizing the Sufis: The Debate in Nineteenth Century India", in F. de Jong and B. Radtke (eds). Islamic Mysticism Contested: 13 Centuries of Controversies and Polemics (Leiden, 1999).
162. See W. Walther, "Folklore", in Meisami and Starkey (1998), pp. 234-236.
163. Orhan Paniuk, The Black Book, trans. G. Gün (London, 1996).
164. See e.g. K. P. Ewing, "The Modern Businessman and the Pakistani Saint: The Interpenetration of Worlds" in G. M. Smith and C. W. Ernst (eds), Manifestations of Sainthood in Islam (Istanbul, 1993)
165. and V.J. Hoffman, "The Role of Visions in Contemporary Egyptian Religious Life", Religion 27, I (1997). Extensive accounts of the dream lives of contemporary Muslims are also found in Azam (1992), pp. 33-103.
166. On the activities of such groups, see J. Baldick, "Les Qalenderis" in A. Popovic and G. Veinstein (eds), Les Voies d'Allah: Les ordres mystiques dans le monde musulman des oridines à aujourd'hui (Paris, 1996)
167. and A. Karamustafa, God's Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups in the Later Middle Period, 1200-1550 (Salt Lake City, 1994).
168. See S. Digby, "Qalandars and Related Groups: Elements of Social Deviance in the Religious Life of the Delhi Sultanate of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries", in Y. Friedmann (ed.), Islam in India, vol. 1 (Jerusalem, 1984).
169. Bodleian Library, MS. Ouseley Add. 171b, fol. 4 verso. See F. Rosenthal, The Herb: Hashish Versus Medieval Muslim Soeiety (Leiden, 1971).
170. Jocelin of Brakelond, Chronicle of the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds, trans. D. Greenway and J. Sayers (Oxford, 1989), pp. 18-19.