Molecular ecology and emergence of tropical plant viruses

Annual Review of Phytopathology

Volumn 44, Issue , 2006, Pages 235-260

  Fargette, D ^a   Konate G ^b   Fauquet, C ^c   Muller, E ^d   Peterschmitt, M ^d   Thresh, J M ^e  

^a INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE POUR LE DÉVELOPPEMENT   (France)

^b INSTITUT DE L ENVIRONNEMENT ET DE RECHERCHES AGRICOLES INERA   (Burkina Faso)

^c DONALD DANFORTH PLANT SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^d CIRAD   (France)

^e UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Banana streak virus; Cassava mosaic geminiviruses; Maize streak virus; Resistance durability; Rice yellow mottle virus; Tropical agriculture

Indexed keywords

ECOSYSTEM; GENETICS; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; PLANT; PLANT VIRUS; REVIEW; TROPIC CLIMATE; VIROLOGY;

ECOSYSTEM; PLANT VIRUSES; PLANTS; TROPICAL CLIMATE;

BANANA STREAK VIRUS; MAIZE STREAK VIRUS; MANIHOT ESCULENTA; RICE YELLOW MOTTLE VIRUS;

EID: 33748942680     PISSN: 00664286     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.44.120705.104644     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Abubakar Z, Ali F, Pinel A, Traoré O, N'Guessan P, et al. 2003. Phylogeography of Rice yellow mottle virus in Africa. J. Gen. Virol. 84:733-43
2. Albar L, Ndjiondjop MN, Esshak Z, Berger A, Pinel A, et al. 2003. Fine mapping of a gene required for Rice yellow mottle virus cell-to-cell movement. Theor. Appl. Genet. 107:371-78
3. Anderson P, Cunningham A, Patel N, Morales F, Epstein P, Daszak P. 2004. Emerging infectious diseases of plants: pathogen pollution, climate change and agrotechnology drivers. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19:535-44
4. Bakker W. 1974. Characterisation and ecological aspects of rice yellow mottle virus in Kenya. Agric. Res. Rep. 829:1-152
5. Beebee T, Rowe G. 2004. An Introduction to Molecular Ecology. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. 346 pp.
6. Bigarré L, Salah M, Granier M, Frutos R, Thouvenel J-C, Peterschmitt M. 1999. Nucleotide sequence evidence for three distinct sugarcane streak mastreviruses. Arch. Virol. 144:2331-44
7. Bock K, Guthrie E, Woods R. 1974. Purification of maize streak virus and its relationship to viruses associated with streak diseases of sugar cane and Panicum maximum. Ann. Appl. Biol. 77:289-96
8. Bourhy H, Kissi B, Audry L, Smreczak M, Sadkowska-Todys M, et al. 1999. Ecology and evolution of rabies virus in Europe. J. Gen. Virol. 80:2545-57
9. Briddon R, Lunness P, Chamberlin L, Pinner M, Brundish H, Markham P. 1992. The nucleotide sequence of an infectious insect-transmissible clone of the geminivirus Panicum streak virus. J. Gen. Virol. 73:1041-47
10. Brown J. 2001. Molecular markers for the identification and global tracking of whitefly vector-begomovirus complexes. Virus Res. 71:233-60
11. Burban C, Fishpool L, Fauquet C, Fargette D, Thouvenel J-C. 1992. Host-associated biotypes within West African populations of the whitefly Bemisia tabuci (Genn.) (Hom., Aleyrodidae). J. Appl. Entomol. 113:416-23
12. Chare E, Holmes E. 2004. Selection pressures in the capsid genes of plant RNA viruses reflect mode of transmission. J. Gen. Virol. 85:3149-57
13. Chare E, Holmes E. 2006. A phylogenetic survey of recombination frequency in plant RNA viruses. Arch. Virol. 151: In press
14. Chellappan P, Vanitharani, Fauquet C. 2004. Short-interfering RNA accumulation correlates with host recovery in DNA virus infected hosts and gene silencing targets specific viral sequences. J. Virol. 78:6574-77
15. Chevalier V, de la Rocque S, Baldet T, Roger F. 2004. Epidemiological processes involved in the emergence of vector-borne diseases: West Nile fever, Rift Valley fever, Japanese encephalitis and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 23:535-55
16. Codoner F, Cuevas J, Sanchez-Navarro J, Pallas V, Elena S. 2005. Molecular evolution of the plant virus family bromoviridae based on RNA-3 encoded proteins. J. Mol. Evol. 61:697-705
17. Colvin J, Fishpool L, Fargette D, Sherington J, Fauquet C. 1998. Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) trap catches in a cassava field in Côte d'Ivoire in relation to environmental factors and the distribution of African cassava mosaic disease. Bull. Entomol. Res. 88:369-78
18. Colvin J, Omongo C, Maruthi M, Otim-Nape G, Thresh J. 2004. Dual begomovirus infections and high Bemisia tabaci populations: two factors driving the spread of a cassava mosaic disease pandemic. Plant Pathol. 53:577-84
19. Cours G, Fargette D, Otim-Nape W, Thresh J. 1997. The development and control of the epidemic of African cassava mosaic disease in Madagascar in the 1930s-1940s: parallels and lessons for the current situation in Uganda. Trop. Sci. 37:238-48
20. Dallot S, Acuña P, Rivera C, Ramirez P, Cote F, et al. 2001. Evidence that the proliferation stage of micropropagation procedure is determinant in the expression of Banana streak virus integrated into the genome of the FHIA 21 hybrid (Musa AAAB). Arch. Virol. 146:2179-90
21. Dauphiné A. 2004. Risques et Catastrophes: Observer, Spatialiser, Comprendre, Gérer. Paris: Armand Collin. 288 pp.
22. Davis P, Holmes E, Larrous F, Van der Poel H, Tjornehoj K, et al. 2005. Phylogeography, population dynamics and molecular evolution of European bat lyssaviruses. J. Virol. 79:10487-97
23. Dekker E, Pinner M, Markham P, Van Regenmortel M. 1988. Characterisation of MSV isolates from different plant species by polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. J. Gen. Virol. 69:983-90
24. Deng D, Otim-Nape G, Sangare A, Ogwal S, Beachy R, Fauquet C. 1997. Presence of a new virus closely associated with cassava mosaic outbreak in Uganda. Afr. J. Root Tuber Crops 2:23-28
25. Drummond A, Pybus O, Rambaut A. 2003. Inference of virus evolutionary rates from molecular sequences. Adv. Parasitol. 54:332-58
26. Egan B, Hall P. 1983. Monitoring the Fiji disease epidemic in sugarcane at Bundaberg, Australia. In Plant Virus Epidemiology, ed R. Plumb, J Thresh, pp 287-296. Oxford: Blackwell
27. Fargette D, Colon L, Bouveau R, Fauquet C. 1996. Components of resistance to African cassava mosaic virus. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 102:645-54
28. Fargette D, Fauquet C, Thouvenel J-C. 1985. Field studies on the spread of African cassava mosaic. Ann. Appl. Biol. 106:285-94
29. Fargette D, Ghesquière L, Albar L, Thresh J. 2006. Virus resistance in rice. In Natural Resistance Mechanisms of Plants to Viruses, ed. G Lobenstein, J Carr, pp. 431-45. Dordrecht, Neths: Springer
30. Fargette D, Jeger M, Fauquet C, Fishpool L. 1994. Analysis of temporal disease progress of African cassava mosaic virus. Phytopathology 84:91-98
31. Fargette D, Pinel A, Abubakar Z, Traoré O, Brugidou C, et al. 2004. Inferring the evolutionary history of Rice yellow mottle virus from genomic, phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies. J. Virol. 78:3252-61
32. Fargette D, Pinel A, Traoré O, Ghesquière A, Konaté G. 2002. Emergence of resistance-breaking isolates of Rice yellow mottle virus during serial inoculations. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108:585-91
33. Fargette D, Vié K. 1994. Modeling the temporal primary spread of African cassava mosaic virus into plantings. Phytopathology 84:378-82
34. Fauquet C, Fargette D. 1990. African cassava mosaic virus: etiology, epidemiology and control. Plant Dis. 74:404-11
35. Fauquet C, Mayo M, Maniloff J, Desselberger J, Ball L, eds. 2005. Virus Taxonomy, VIIIth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. London: Elsevier/Academic
36. Fauquet C, Stanley J. 2003. Geminivirus classification and nomenclature: progress and problems. Ann. Appl. Biol. 142:165-89
37. Feder M, Mitchell-Olds T. 2003. Evolutionary and ecological functional genomics. Nat. Rev. Genet. 4:649-55
38. Fondong V, Pita J, Rey M, de Kochko A, Beachy R, Fauquet C. 2000. Evidence of synergism between African cassava mosaic virus and the new double recombinant geminivirus infecting cassava in Cameroon. J. Gen. Virol. 81:287-97
39. Freeland J. 2005. Molecular Ecology. New York: Wiley. 400 pp.
40. Garcia-Arenal F, Fraile A, Malpica J. 2001. Variability and genetic structure of plant virus populations. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 39:157-86
41. Garcia-Arenal F, McDonald B. 2003. An analysis of the durability of resistance to plant viruses. Phytopathology 93:941-52
42. Geering A, McMichael L, Dietzgen R, Thomas J. 2000. Genetic diversity among Banana streak virus isolates from Australia. Phytopathology 90:921-27
43. Geering A, Olszewski N, Harper G, Lockhart B, Hull R, Thomas J. 2005. Banana contains a diverse array of endogenous badnaviruses. J. Gen. Virol. 86:511-20
44. Geering A, Pooggin M, Olszewski N, Lockhart B, Thomas J. 2005. Characterisation of Banana streak Mysore virus and evidence that its DNA is integrated in the B genome of cultivated Musa. Arch. Virol. 150:787-96
45. Gibson R, Legg J, Otim-Nape G. 1996. Unusually severe symptoms are a characteristic of the current epidemic of mosaic virus disease of cassava in Uganda. Ann. Appl. Biol. 128:479-90
46. Goodwin B, Fahrig L. 2002. How does landscape structure influence landscape connectivity? Oikos 99:552-70
47. Grenfell B, Pybus O, Gog J, Wood J, Daly J, et al. 2004. Unifying the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of pathogens. Science 303:327-32
48. Guthrie E. 1978. Measurement of yield losses caused by maize streak disease. Plant Dis: Rep. 62:839-41
49. Guyader S, Giblot Ducray D. 2002. Sequence analysis of Potato leafroll virus isolates reveals genetic stability, major evolutionary events and differential selection pressure between overlapping reading frame products. J. Gen. Virol. 83:1799-807
50. Haimes Y. 2004. Risk Modeling, Assessment and Management. New York: Wiley. 864 pp. 2nd ed.
51. Harper G, Hart D, Moult S, Hull R, Geering A, Thomas J. 2005. The diversity of Banana streak virus isolates in Uganda. Arch. Virol. 12:2407-20
52. Harper G, Hull R. 1998. Cloning and sequence analysis of Banana streak virus. Virus Genes 17:271-78
53. Harper G, Hull R, Lockhart B, Olszewski N. 2002. Viral sequences integrated into plant genomes. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 40:119-36
54. Harper G, Osuji J, Heslop-Harrison J, Hull R. 1999. Integration of banana streak badnavirus into the Musa genome: molecular and cytogenetic evidence. Virology 255:207-13
55. Harrison B. 2002. Virus variation in relation to resistance-breaking in plants. Euphytica 124:181-92
56. Harrison B, Zhou X, Otim-Nape G, Liu Y, Robinson D. 1997. Role of a novel type of double infection in the geminivirus-induced epidemic of severe cassava mosaic in Uganda. Ann. Appl. Biol. 131:437-48
57. Hébrard E, Pinel-Galzi A, Bersoult A, Siré C, Fargette D. 2006. Emergence of a resistance-breaking isolate of Rice yellow mottle virus during serial inoculations is due to a single substitution in the genome-linked viral protein VPg. J. Gen. Virol. 87:1369-73
58. Hinten G. 2006. Textbook review: An Introduction to Molecular Ecology, Trevor Beebee, Graham Rowe. Mol. Ecol. 15:299-300
59. Hong Y, Robinson D, Harrison B. 1993. Nucleotide sequence evidence for the occurrence of three distinct whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in cassava. J. Gen. Virol. 74:2437-43
60. Hull R, Fargette D. 2005. Sobemovirus. See Ref. 35, pp. 885-90
61. Hull R, Geering A, Harper G, Lockhart B, Schoelz J. 2005. Caulimoviridae. See Ref. 35, pp. 385-96
62. Jackson R, Linder C, Lynch M, Purugganan M, Somerville S, Thayer S. 2002. Linking molecular insight and ecological research. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17:409-14
63. Jaufeerally-Fakim Y, Khorugdharry A, Harper G. 2006. Genetic variants of Banana streak virus in Mauritius. Virus Res. 115:91-98
64. Jeger M, Thresh M. 1993. Modeling reinfection of replanted cocoa by swollen shoot virus in pandemically diseased areas. J. Appl. Ecol. 30:187-96
65. Jenkins G, Rambaut A, Pybus O, Holmes E. 2002. Rates of molecular evolution in RNA viruses: a quantitative phylogenetic analysis. J. Mol. Evol. 54:156-65
66. Jones R. 2005. Patterns of spread of two non-persistently aphid-borne viruses in lupin stands under four infection scenarios. Ann. Appl. Biol. 146:337-50
67. Jones R, Smith L, Latham L. 2005. Patterns of spread of Carrot virus Y in carrot plantings and validation of control measures. Ann. Appl. Biol. 147:57-67
68. Konaté G, Sarra S, Traoré O. 2001. Rice yellow mottle is seed-borne but not seed transmitted in rice seeds. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107:361-64
69. Konaté G, Traoré O, Coulibaly M. 1997. Characterization of rice yellow mottle virus isolates in Sudano-Sahelian areas. Arch. Virol. 142:1117-24
70. Lecoq H, Moury B, Desbiez C, Palloix A, Pitrat M. 2004. Durable resistance in plants through conventional approaches: a challenge. Virus Res. 100:31-39
71. Legg J. 1999. Emergence, spread and strategies for controlling the pandemic of cassava mosaic virus disease in east and central Africa. Crop Prot. 18:627-37
72. Legg J, Fauquet C. 2004. Cassava mosaic geminiviruses in Africa. Plant Mol. Biol. 56:585-99
73. Legg J, French R, Rogan D, Okao-Okuja G, Brown J. 2002. A distinct, invasive Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae) genotype cluster is associated with the epidemic of severe cassava mosaic virus disease in Uganda. Mol. Ecol. 11:1219-29
74. Legg J, Ogwal S. 1998. Changes in the incidence of African cassava mosaic geminivirus and the abundance of its whitefly vector along south-north transects in Uganda. J. Appl. Entomol. 122:169-78
75. Lheureux F, Carreel F, Jenny C, Lockhart L, Iskra-Caruana L. 2003. Identification of genetic markers linked to banana streak disease expression in inter-specific Musa hybrids. Theor. Appl. Genet. 106:594-98
76. Lin H, Rubio L, Smythe A, Falk B. 2004. Molecular population genetics of Cucumber mosaic virus in California: evidence for founder effects and reassortment. J. Virol. 78:6666-75
77. Lockhart B. 1986. Purification and serology of a bacilliform virus associated with a streak disease of banana. Phytopathology 76:995-99
78. Lockhart B, Jones D. 2000. Banana streak. In Diseases of Banana, Abaca and Enset, ed. DR Jones, pp. 263-74. Wallingford, UK: CAB Int.
79. Lockhart B, Olszewski N. 1993. Serological and genomic heterogeneity of banana streak badnavirus: implications for virus detection in Musa germplasm. In Breeding Banana and Plantain for Resistance to Diseases and Pests, ed. J Ganry, pp. 105-13. Montpellier, France: CIRAD/INIBAP
80. Loebenstein G, Thottappilly G. 2003. Virus and Virus-Like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries. Dordrecht: Kluwer. 800 pp.
81. Martin P, Willment J, Billharz R, Velders R, Odhiambo B, et al. 2001. Sequence diversity and virulence in Zea mays of Maize streak virus isolates. Virology 288:247-55
82. Monaghan M, Gattoliat JL, Sartori M, Elouard JM, James H, et al. 2005. Trans-oceanic and endemic origins of the small minnow mayflies (Ephemeroptera, Bactidae) of Madagascar. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 272:1829-36
83. Morris B, Coates L, Lowe S, Richardson K, Eddy P. 1990. Nucleotide sequence of the infectious cloned DNA components of African cassava mosaic virus (Nigerian strain). Nucleic Acids Res. 18:197-98
84. Moury B. 2004. Differential selection of genes of cucumber mosaic virus subgroups. Mol. Biol. Evol. 21:1602-11
85. Moury B, Desbiez C, Jacquemond M, Lecoq H. 2006. Genetic diversity of plant virus populations: towards hypothesis testing in molecular epidemiology. Adv. Virus Res: In press
86. Moury B, Morel C, Johansen E, Guilbaud L, Souche S, et al. 2004. Mutations in Potato virus Y genome-linked protein determine virulence toward recessive resistances in Capsicum annum and Lycopersicon birsutum. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 17:322-29
87. Moury B, Morel C, Johansen E, Jacquemond M. 2002. Evidence for diversifying selection in potato virus Y and in the coat protein of other potyviruses. J. Gen. Virol. 83:2563-73
88. Moya A, Holmes E, Gonzales-Candelas F. 2004. The population genetics and evolutionary epidemiology of RNA viruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2:279-88
89. Myers N, Mittermeyer R, Mittermeier C, De Fonseca G, Kent J. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853-58
90. Ndjiondjop MN, Albar L, Fargette D, Fauquet C, Ghesquière A. 1999. The genetic basis of high resistance to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) in cultivars of two cultivated rice species. Plant Dis. 83:931-35
91. Ndowora T, Dahal G, La Fleur D, Harper G, Hull R, et al. 1999. Evidence that Badnavirus infection in Musa can originate from integrated pararetroviral sequences. Virology 255:214-20
92. Ndunguru J, Legg J, Aveling T, Thompson G, Fauquet C. 2005. Molecular biodiversity of cassava begomoviruses in Tanzania: evolution of cassava geminiviruses in Africa and evidence for East Africa being a center of diversity of cassava geminiviruses. Virol. J. 2:e2l
93. Omongo C. 2003. Cassava whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, behaviour and ecology in relation to the spread of the cassava mosaic pandemic in Uganda. PhD thesis. Univ. Greenwich. Greenwich. 227 pp.
94. Otim-Nape G, Bua A, Thresh J, Baguma Y, Ogwal S, et al. 1997. Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease in East Africa and Its Control. Chatham, UK: Nat. Resourc. Inst. 100 pp.
95. Otim-Nape G, Bua A, Thresh J, Baguma Y, Ogwal S, et al. 2000. The Current Pandemic of Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease in East Africa and Its Control. Chatham, UK: Nat. Resourc. Inst. 100 pp.
96. Padidam M, Sawyer S, Fauquet C. 1999. Possible emergence of new geminiviruses by frequent recombination. Virology 265:218-25
97. Perrier X, Flori A, Bonnot F. 2003. Data analysis methods. In Genetic Diversity of Cultivated Tropical Plants, ed. P Hamon, M Seguin, X Perrier, JC Glaszmann, pp. 43-76. Montpellier, France: Enfield Sci.
98. Peterschmitt M, Granier M, Frutos R, Reynaud B. 1996. Infectivity and complete nucleotide sequence of the genome of a genetically distinct strain of maize streak virus from Reunion Island. Arch. Virol. 141:1637-50
99. Peterschmitt M, Reynaud B, Sommermeyer G, Baudin P. 1991. Characterization of MSV isolates using monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies and by transmission to a few hosts. Plant Dis. 75:27-32
100. Pinel A, N'Guessan P, Bousalem M, Fargette D. 2000. Molecular variability of geographically distinct isolates of Rice yellow mottle virus in Africa. Arch. Virol. 145:1621-38
101. Pinel A, Traoré O, Abubakar Z, Konaté G, Fargette D. 2003. Molecular epidemiology of the RNA satellite of the Rice yellow mottle virus. Arch. Virol 148:1721-33
102. Pinel-Galzi A, Fargette D, Hull R. 2006. First report of Rice yellow mottle virus in Uganda. Plant Dis. 90:684
103. Pita J, Fondong V, Sangare A, Kokora R, Fauquet C. 2001. Genomic and biological diversity of the African cassava geminiviruses. Euphytica 120:115-25
104. Pita J, Fondong V, Sangare A, Otim-Nape G, Ogwal S, Fauquet C. 2001. Recombination, pseudorecombination and synergism of geminiviruses are determinant keys to the epidemic of severe cassava mosaic disease in Uganda. J. Gen. Virol. 82:655-65
105. Porteres R. 1950. Vielles agricultures de l'Afrique intertropicale. Agron. Afr. 9:489-507
106. Purugganan M, Gibson G. 2003. Merging ecology, molecular evolution and functional genetics. Mol. Ecol. 12:1109-12
107. Pybus O, Rambault A, Holmes E, Harvey P. 2002. New inferences from tree shape: numbers of missing taxa and population growth rates. Syst. Biol. 51:881-88
108. Real L, Henderson C, Biek R, Snaman J, Jack T, et al. 2005. Unifying the spatial population dynamics and molecular evolution of epidemic rabies virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:12107-11
109. Roossinck M. 2005. Symbiosis versus competition in plant virus evolution. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3:917-24
110. Rybicki E. 1994. A phylogenetic and evolutionary justification for three genera of Geminiviridae. Arch. Virol. 139:149-77
111. Rybicki E, Hughes F. 1990. Detection and typing of maize streak virus and other distantly related geminiviruses of grasses by polymerase chain reaction amplification of a conserved viral sequence. J. Gen. Virol. 71:2519-26
112. Safar J, Noa-Carrazana J, Vrana J, Bartos J, Alkhimova O, et al. 2004. Creation of a BAG resource to study the structure and evolution of the banana (Musa balbisiana) genome. Genome 47:1182-91
113. Schirmer A, Link D, Cognat V, Moury B, Beuve M, et al. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of isolates of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus collected worldwide. J. Gen. Virol. 86:2897-911
114. Sorho F, Pinel A, Traoré O, Bersoult A, Ghesquière A, et al. 2005. Durability of natural and transgenic resistances in rice to Rice yellow mottle virus. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 112:349-59
115. Stanley J, Bisaro D, Briddon R, Brown J, Fauquet C, et al. 2005. Geminiviridae. See Ref. 35, pp. 301-26
116. Stanley J, Gay M. 1983. Nucleotide sequence of cassava latent virus DNA. Nature 301:260-62
117. Storey H. 1925. The transmission of streak disease of maize by the leafhopper Balclutha mbila Naudé. Ann. Appl. Biol. 12:422-39
118. Swanson M, Harrison B. 1994. Properties, relationships and distribution of cassava mosaic geminiviruses. Trop. Sci. 34:15-25
119. Thottappilly G, Dahal G, Harper G, Hull R, Lockhart B. 1997. Banana streak badnavirus: development of diagnostics by ELISA and PCR. Phytopathology 87:597 (Abstr.)
120. Thresh J. 1976. Gradients of plant virus diseases. Ann. Appl. Biol. 82:381-406
121. Thresh J. 1983. The long-range dispersal of plant viruses by arthropod vectors. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 302:497-528
122. Thresh J. 1991. The ecology of tropical plant viruses. Plant Pathol. 40:324-39
123. Thresh M, Fargette D, Jeger M. 2003. Epidemiology of tropical plant viruses. See Ref. 80, pp. 55-77
124. Thresh J, Otim-Nape W, Fargette D. 1998. The components and deployment of resistance to cassava mosaic virus disease. Integr. Pest Manag. Rev. 3:209-24
125. Traoré O, Pinel A, Hébrard E, Gumedzoé Y, Fargette D, Traoré A, Konaté G. 2006. Occurrence and frequency of resistance-breaking isolates of Rice yellow mottle virus in West and Central Africa. Plant Dis. 90:256-63
126. Traoré O, Sorho F, Pinel A, Abubakar Z, Banwo O, et al. 2005. Processes of diversification and dispersion of Rice yellow mottle virus inferred from large-scale and high-resolution phylogeographic studies. Mol. Ecol. 14:2097-110
127. Traoré O, Traoré M, Fargette D, Konaté G. 2006. Seedbeds as sources for primary infection of rice by Rice yellow mottle virus. Europ. J. Plant Pathol. In press
128. Tsompana M, Abad J, Purugganan M, Moyer W. 2005. The molecular population genetics of the Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) genome. Mol. Ecol. 14:53-66
129. Turner G. 2005. Landscape ecology: What its the state of the science? Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 36:319-44
130. Vanitharani R, Chellappan P, Fauquet C. 2005. Geminiviruses and RNA silencing. Trends Plant Sci. 10:1360-85
131. Vanitharani R, Chellappan P, Pita J, Fauquet C. 2004. Differential roles of AC2 and AC4 of cassava geminiviruses in mediating synergism and suppression of post-transcriptional gene silencing. J. Virol. 78:9487-98
132. Van den Bosch F, Metz J, Zadoks J. 1999. Pandemics of focal plant disease, a model. Phytopathology 89:495-505
133. Van Regenmortel M. 2004. Reductionism and complexity in molecular biology. EMBO Rep. 5:1016-20
134. Walsh P, Biek R, Real L. 2005. Wawe-like spread of Ebola Zaire. PLoS Biol. 3:e371
135. Zanotto P, Gao G, Gritsun T, Marin M, Jiang W, et al. 1995. An arbovirus cline across the northern hemisphere. Virology 210:152-59
136. Zeigler R, Gashaka W, Kaybigi M. 1985. Maize streak disease in Burundi highlands. Tropicultura 3:130-34
137. Zhou X, Liu Y, Calvert L, Munoz C, Otim-Nape G, Robinson D, Harrison B. 1997. Evidence that DNA-A of a geminivirus associated with severe cassava mosaic disease in Uganda has arisen by interspecific recombination. J. Gen. Virol. 78:2101-11