The anti-slavery project: Linking the historical and contemporary

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 565-598

  Quirk, Joel ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; HUMAN RIGHTS; SLAVE; SOCIAL JUSTICE;

EID: 33748755735     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2006.0036     Document Type: Article

References (294)

1. Kevin Bales, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy 8-9 (1999).
2. For two alternative perspectives, compare Report of the ILO Directorate-General, Report Under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work: A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour (2005), available at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/ DECLARATIONWEB.DOWNLOAD_BLOB?Var_DocumentID=5059, with UNESCO Trafficking Statistics Project- Bangkok, http://www.unescobkk.org/ index.php?id=1022.
3. Bridget Anderson, Migrant Domestic Workers and Slavery, in Political Economy of the New Slavery 107, 111-13 (Christien van den Anker ed., 2004);
4. Ryan Bishop & Lilian S. Robinson, Night Market: Sexual Cultures and the Thai Economic Miracle 161, 242 (1998).
5. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Fact Sheet No. 14: Contemporary Forms of Slavery 1 (1991).
6. This focus on children reflects decisions made in 1988 by the UN Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, where it "was agreed that, in addition to traditional slavery, attention should be given to the traffic in persons and sale of children. Exploitation of children by way of child labor, child prostitution, and child pornography, should be a core concern."
7. Report of the Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts. 13th Sess., 5, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub2/1988/32 (1988).
8. This synopsis reflects issues taken up by the Working Group On Contemporary Slavery since 1975.
9. Slavery Convention, adopted 25 Sept. 1926, available at http:// www.ohchr.org/english/law/slavery.htm.
10. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 7 Sept. 1956, (entered into force 30 Apr. 1956) available at http://www.ohchr.org/ english/law/slavetrade.htm.
11. See, e.g., Report of the Working Group on Slavery on its Twelfth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., U.N. Doc. No. E/CN.4/Sub.2/ 1987/25 (1987).
12. The 1926 Convention was not the first international treaty concerned with slavery. For a review of the relationship between slavery and international law see David Weissbrodt & Anti-Slavery International, Abolishing Slavery and its Contemporary Forms (2002);
13. M. Cherif Bassiouni, Enslavement as an International Crime, 23 N.Y. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 445, 457-458 (1991);
14. The Suppression of Slavery, U.N. ESCOR, Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery, U.N. Doc. No. 275ST/SOA/A (1951).
15. 1926 Slavery Convention, supra note 5 (emphasis added).
16. Id.
17. The Leagueof Nations Temporary Slavery Committee, which paved the way for the 1926 Convention, listed, inter alia: slavery, serfdom, debt bondage, and forced labor. On this point, see Weissbrodt & Anti-Slavery International, supra note 5, at 3-4.
18. Kevin Grant, A Civilized Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884-1926, at 159-66 (2005);
19. Suzanne Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century 100-16 (2003).
20. C.W.W. Greenidge, Slavery 22-26 (1958).
21. Emblematic in this regard are official responses received by the League of Nations Advisory Committee of Experts. See League of Nations, Report of the Advisory Committee of Experts, C.159.M.113.1935.VI, (Apr. 10, 1935);
22. League of Nations, Report of the Advisory Committee of Experts, C.189(i).M.145/1936.VI (May 15, 1936).
23. 1956 Supplementary Convention, supra note 6 (emphasis added).
24. Any institution or practice whereby: (i) a woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or (ii) the husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person for value received or otherwise; or (iii) a woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person.
25. Any institution or practice whereby a child or young person under the age of eighteen years, is delivered by either or both of his natural parents or by his guardian to another person, whether for reward or not, with a view to the exploitation of the child or young person or of his labor. Id.
26. Id.
27. Id.
28. William Korey, NGO'S and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A Curious Grapevine 120-22 (1998);
29. Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century 317-32, supra note 11.
30. Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World (1989);
31. Greenidge, supra note 12, at 36-57.
32. Report of the Working Group on Slavery on its First Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 29 Sess. ¶ 15, U.N. Doc. No. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.2 /3, (1975).
33. Id.
34. Id.
35. Id.
36. Report of the Working Group on Slavery on its Twelfth Session, supra note 7.
37. See Bales, supra note 1, at 19;
38. Janet Hoskins, Slaves, Brides and Other "Gifts": Resistance, Marriage and Rank in Eastern Indonesia, 25 Slavery and Abolition 92, 96-106 (2004);
39. Martin A. Klein, Introduction: Modern European Expansion and Traditional Servitude in Africa and Asia, in Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia 26-27 (Martin A. Klein ed., 1993);
40. Roger Sawyer, Slavery in the Twentieth Century 27-31 (1986);
41. Amrendra Kumar Thakur, Slavery in Arunachal Pradesh (2003).
42. Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (2d ed. 2000);
43. Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (1990).
44. A Global Alliance Against Forced Labor, supra note 1, at 42-44;
45. Andrew F. Clark, The Ties that Bind in Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa 92, 96-106 (Suzanne Miers & Martin A. Klein eds., 1999) [hereinafter Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule];
46. Martin A. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa 237-51 (1998) [hereinafter Klein, French West Africa];
47. Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold 66, 120-23, 318 (1991);
48. Suzanne Miers & Martin A Klein, Introduction, in Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28, at 10-11.
49. For Niger see Anti-Slavery International & Association Timidira in Slavery in Niger: Historical, Legal and Contemporary Perspectives (Galy Kadir Abdelkader ed., 2004), available at http://www.antislavery.org/ homepage/resources/PDF/Full%20English%20Slavery%20in%20Niger.pdf;
50. BBC World Service, Slavery Today (2004), http://www.bbc.co.uk/ world-service/specials/1357_slavery_today/page3.shtml.
51. John Mercer, Slavery in Mauritania Today 10-12 (1982);
52. Samuel Cotton, Silent Terror: A Journey into Contemporary African Slavery 26-27 (1998);
53. Amnesty International, Mauritania: A future free from slavery?, Al Index: AFR 38/003/2002, 7-8, 7 Nov. 2002, available at http:// web.amnesty.org/library/pdf/AFR380032002 ENGLISH/$File/ AFR3800302.pdf.
54. See E. Ann McDougall, A Topsy-Turvy World: Slaves and Freed Slaves in the Mauritanian Adrar, 1910-1950, in The End of Slavery in Africa 362-84, (Suzanne Miers & Richard Roberts eds., 1988);
55. Martin A. Klein, Slavery and French Rule in the Sahara, in Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28, at 73,
56. David Seddon, Unfinished Business: Slavery in Saharan Africa, in After Slavery: Emancipation and its Discontents 208-36 (Howard Temperley ed., 2000).
57. Abdel Wedoud Ould Cheikh cited in Klein, French West Africa, supra note 28, at 237-51.
58. Examples include Bales, supra note 1, at 80-120;
59. Cotton, supra note 30;
60. Human Rights Watch/Africa, Mauritania's Campaign of Terror: State Sponsored Repression of Black Africans 79-92 (1994);
61. Amnesty International, Mauritania, supra note 30;
62. Mercer, supra note 30;
63. Sawyer, Slavery in the Twentieth Century, supra note 26, at 15-31;
64. American Anti-Slavery Group, Slavery Today: The Global Tragedy 13-15 (2000).
65. See, e.g., Urs Peter Rue, Ending Slavery: Hierarchy, Dependency and Gender in Central Mauritania 12 (1999);
66. Elizabeth Bryant, Faces of Globalization: Mauritania Slavery, Wash. Times, 27 Aug. 2004;
67. Ahmed Mohamed, Three people indicted in Mauritania for Allegedly Fabricating Slavery Story, A. P. Newswires, 17 Mar. 2005;
68. Amnesty International, Mauritania, supra note 30, at 1-4.
69. See Ruf, Ending Slavery, supra note 34.
70. Bales, supra note 1, at 88.
71. Both involve Afro-Arab divisions and the Islamic faith, and thus touch on larger political agendas concerning Islam. Cotton, supra note 22, at 157-60;
72. Ronald Segal, Islam's Black Slaves - A History of Africa's Other Black Diaspora 204-23 (2001).
73. Amnesty International, Sudan: Who will answer for the crimes?, Al Index: AFR, 54/006/2005 (8 Jan. 2005), available at http://web.amnesty.org/ library/pdf/AFR540062005ENGLISH/$File/AFR5400605.pdf,
74. Millard Burr, Working Document II: Quantifying Genocide In Southern Sudan And The Nuba Mountains 1983-1998, (U.S. Committee for Refugees, Dec. 1998), available at http://www.refugees.org/news/crisis/sudan.pdf.
75. For Sierra Leone, see Human Rights Watch, We'll Kill You if You Cry: Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict (2003), available at http:// hrw.org/reports/2003/sierraleonoe/sierleon0103-02.htm;
76. for Uganda, see Human Rights Watch, Stolen Children: Abduction and Recruitment in Northern Uganda (2003), available at http://hrw.org/ reports/2003/uganda0303/uganda0403.pdf.
77. Jok Madut Jok, War AND Slavery in Sudan 6 (2001).
78. A key starting point is Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. Dep't of State Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan, Report of the International Eminent Persons Group (2002), available at http://www.state.gov/p/af/rls/ rpt/10445.htm.
79. Christine J. Gardner, Slave Redemption, Christianity Today, 9 Aug. 1999, at 28-33;
80. Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing God's Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights 237-300 (2004);
81. Francis Bok & Edward Tivnan, Escape from Slavery, The true story of my ten years in captivity - and my journey to freedom in America (2003);
82. Mende Nazer & Damien Lewis, Slave: The True Story of Girl's Lost Childhood and Her Fight for Survival (2004).
83. Mike Dottridge, Dollars and Sense: The Burden of Slavery, 333 New Internationalist 16-17 (2001);
84. Richard Miniter, The False Promise of Slave Redemption, Atlantic Mon., 1 July 1999, at 63-70;
85. Peter Verney, Redemption by Numbers, 1 Index on Censorship 60-64 (2000);
86. Declan Walsh, Scam in Sudan: An Elaborate Hoax Involving Fake African Slaves and Less- Than-Honest Interpreters is Duping Concerned Westerners, The Independent, 24 Feb 2002, available at http:// news.independent.co.uk/World/Africa/story.jsp?story=139416.
87. Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), (9 Jan. 2005, Institute for Security Studies), available at http://www.iss.org.za/AF/profiles/Sudan/ darfur/cpaprov.htm.
88. David Hoile, Sudan, Propaganda and Distortion: Allegations of Slavery and Slavery-related Practices: An Open Letter to Barones Cox and Christian Solidarity International Politics File Number Five 1-10 (1997);
89. Anti-Slavery Int'l, Is There Slavery in Sudan? (2001), available at http://www.antislavery.org/homepage/resources/ isthereslaveryinsudanreport.pdf, §4.1;
90. Jok, supra note 40, at 2-3, 157-79.
91. Amir H. Idris, Sudan's Civil War: Slavery, Race and Formational Identities (2001);
92. Mansour Khalid, War and Peace in Sudan: A Tale of Two Countries (2003).
93. See A Global Alliance Against Forced Labor, supra note 1;
94. Judith Ennew, Debt Bondage: A Survey 31-61 (1981).
95. Krishna Upadhyaya, Bonded Labor in South Asia: India, Nepal and Pakistan, in Political Economy of the New Slavery, supra note 2, at 118-30.
96. International Labour Office [ILO], Stopping Forced Labor, Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, International Labor Conference, at 32 (89th Session, 2001), available at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/ DECLARATIONWEB.DOWNLOAD_BLOB?Var_DocumentID=1578.
97. 1956 Supplementary Convention, supra note 6.
98. See, e.g., Martin A. Klein, The Emancipation of Slaves in the Indian Ocean, in Abolition and its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia 198, 203-11 (Gwyn Campbell ed., 2005);
99. Alan Knight, Debt Bondage in Latin America, in Slavery and other Forms of Unfree Labor 102-15 (Léone Archer ed., 1988);
100. Bruno Lasker, Human Bondage in Southeast Asia 113-67 (1950);
101. Stopping Forced Labor, supra note 49, at 21-28.
102. This should not be conceived in overly static terms, as the unbroken continuation of entrenched historical practices. See Gyan Prakash, Bonded Histories: Genealogies of Labor Servitude in Colonial India (1990).
103. Bales, supra note 1, at 16.
104. See Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 Hum. Rts. Q. 572, 573 (1997);
105. Ravi S. Srivastava, Bonded Labor in India: Its Incidence and Pattern (International Labour Office, Working Paper No. 43, at 68-69 (2005), available at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/ DECLARATIONWEB.DOWNLOAD_BLOB?Var_DocumentID=1571;
106. Upadhyaya, supra note 48, at 127-32.
107. Id. at 118.
108. Id. at 123-24.
109. A useful starting point is L. Mishna, Annotated Bibliography on Forced/ Bonded Labor in India (International Labour Office, Working Paper No. 11, 2002, available at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/ DECLARATIONWEB.DOWNLOAD_BLOB?Var_DocumentID=1556.
110. Srivastava, supra note 54, at 6-7.
111. This feeds into an even a larger estimate, which holds that between twenty and sixty-five million people are in bonded labor in India. Human Rights Watch, Small Change: Bonded Child Labor in India's Silk Industry, at 18, 46, 50 (Jan. 2003), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/ india/india0103.pdf.
112. See also Human Rights Watch Children's Rights Project, Human Rights Watch/Asia, The Small Hands of Slavery: Bonded Child Labor In India, at 2 (1996), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/india3.htm.
113. See Tucker, supra note 54, at 580-87;
114. Small Hands in South Asia: Child Labour in Perspective (G.K. Lieten, et al., eds., 2004).
115. Stopping Forced Labor, supra note 49, at 33-35.
116. The most prominent example here concerns rehabilitation schemes introduced by the Indian government, which are held to have rehabilitated 265,000 bonded laborers as of 31 March 2004.
117. Srivastava, Bonded Labor, supra note 54, at 6.
118. David Ould, Trafficking and International Law in The Political Economy of the New Slavery, supra note 2, at 35.
119. Wendy Chapkis, Trafficking, Migration, and the Law - Protecting Innocents, Punishing Immigrants, 17 Gender & Society 923 (2003);
120. Nora V. Demleitner, The Law at a Crossroads: The Construction of Migrant Women Trafficked into Prostitution, in Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspective 257 (David Kyle & Rey Koslowski eds., 2001).
121. See Anne Gallagher, Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: Preliminary Analysis, 23 Hum. Rts. Q. 975 (2001).
122. Office of the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights, 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Art. 3, available at http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/protocoltraffic.htm.
123. U.S. Dep't. Of State, Trafficking in Persons Report 2004, at 15, 23, available at http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2004/.
124. Id. at 23.
125. Id.
126. Bales, supra note 1, at 5.
127. Id. at 8-10.
128. This discussion does not take up the subsequent evolution of Bales' position. The model presented here represents his most influential exposition.
129. Id.
130. Id. at 75.
131. Id. at 14-19.
132. Id. at 12-14.
133. Joel Quirk, Trafficked into Slavery, J. Hum. Rts. (Forthcoming),; Eileen Scully, Pre-Cold War Traffic in Sexual Labor and Its Foes: Some Contemporary Lessons, in Global Human Smuggling, supra note 64, at 74.
134. Meillassoux, supra note 28.
135. Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia: 1450-1725, at 49-64 (1982).
136. The notable exception here is the seminal work of Miers, supra note 11, to which this article owes a considerable debt.
137. See Joseph C. Miller, Slavery and Slavng in Wolrd History: A Bibliograhy, Volume 1, 1900-1991 (1997);
138. Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography, Volume 2, 1992-1996 (1999).
139. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study vii-xi, 38-45 (1982).
140. Id. at 35-36.
141. Examples include Id. at 6-7;
142. Gordon, supra note 20, at 14-15;
143. William Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade 24-25, 75-78 (1985);
144. Lovejoy, supra note 27, at 186.
145. Hellie, Slavery in Russia, supra note 78, at 81-82, 356;
146. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, supra note 81, at 38-45, 129-30;
147. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times, supra note 83, at 23-24.
148. James L. Watson, Slavery as an Institution, Open and Closed Systems, in Asian and African System of Slavery 1-15 (James L. Watson ed., 1980).
149. Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa 37 (1977).
150. Gordon, supra note 20, at 49-56;
151. Hellie, Slavery in Russia, supra note 78, at 20-21, 461-67;
152. Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, Introduction, supra note 28, at 1;
153. Orlando Patterson, Freedom 11 (1991);
154. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, supra note 81, at 33-34;
155. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times, supra note 83, at 75.
156. Davids Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas 3-5 (2000);
157. Patterson, Freedom, supra note 86, at 9-44.
158. On the theme of resistance, pre- and post- abolition see Ann O'Hear, Power Relations in Nigeria: Ilorin Slaves and Their Successors 4-20 (1997).
159. Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery, supra note 87, at xiii.
160. This can also include slaves owning other slaves. Lovejoy, supra note 27, at 167.
161. See, e.g., Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776-1848 (1988).
162. For Transatlantic slavery more generally. See Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (1999).
163. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-ROM (David Eltis et al. eds., 1999).
164. Treatments of the early history of British Anti-Slavery include Roger Anstey, The Atlatic Slave Trade and British Abolition (1975);
165. David Brions Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution 1770-1823 (1975);
166. Dale Porter, The Abolition of The Slave Trade in England, 1784-1807 (1970);
167. Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains - The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery (2005);
168. Slavery and British Society 1776-1846 (James Walvin ed., 1982);
169. James Walvin, England, Slaves and Freedom, 1776-1838 (1987).
170. These tactics and techniques have attracted considerable interest. See Margaret Keck & Kathyn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders 41-51 (1998);
171. Audie Klotz, Transnational Activism and Global Transformations: The Anti-Apartheid and Abolitionist Experiences, 8 Eur. J. Int'l Relation 49 (2002).
172. Seymour Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery: British Mobilization in Comparative Perspective 85, 89-134 (1986).
173. Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment: Free Labor Versus Slavery in British Emancipation 4 (2002).
174. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery 154-77 (1944).
175. In this model, humanitarian sentiments are largely reduced to window dressing and successful propaganda. Id. at 178-96.
176. Seymour Drescher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition 136 (1977).
177. This theme is also taken up by Neta C. Crawford, Argument and Change in World Politics 162-90 (2002).
178. Phillip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action 1780-1850, at 468-69 (1964);
179. David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade 85-90 (1987);
180. James Ferguson King, The Latin-American Republics and the Suppression of the Slave Trade, 24 Hispanic Am. Hist. Rev. 387 (1944);
181. Suzzanne Miers, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade 40-55 (1975).
182. Eltis, Economics Growth, supra note 97, at 85-90.
183. R.W. Beachey, The Slave Trade or Eastern Africa 232-41 (1976);
184. Leslie Bethel, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slavve Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question 1807-1869, at 189-90 (1970);
185. David Murray, Odious Commerce - Britain, Spain and the Abolition of the Cuban Slave Trade 104-06 (1980);
186. Duncan Rice, The Rise and Fall of Black Slavery 229-31, 34 (1975).
187. Eltis, Economic Growth, supra note 97, at 249-52.
188. See also id at 164-65.
189. Id. at 97-98.
190. Chaim D. Kaufmann & Robert A. Pape, Explaining Costly International Moral Action: Britain's Sixty-Year Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade, 53 Int'l Org. 636 (1999).
191. Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776-1848, at 520 (1988);
192. Drescher, Econocide, supra note 96;
193. Eltis, Economic Growth, supra note 97;
194. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade 185-86 (1999);
195. E. Phillip LeVeen, British Slave Trade Suppression Policies 64-85 (1977).
196. Robery Conrad, The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850-1888 (1972).
197. Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery, supra note 93, at 50-66.
198. Eltis, The Rse of African Slavery, supra note 87, at 274.
199. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, supra note 81, at vii.
200. Bernard McGrane, Beyond Anthropology - Society and the Other 98 (1989).
201. Betty Fladeland, Abolitionists Pressures on the Concert of Europe, 1814-1882, 38 J. Mod. Hist. 355 (1966).
202. Howard Temperley, British Antislavery, 1833-1870 (1972).
203. In this context, effective emancipation does not represent a static, singular standard, but a set of evolving aspirations and expectations. Ken Booth, Three Tyrannies, in Human Rights in Global Politics 43 (1999).
204. Christien van den Anker, Introduction: Combating Contemporary Slavery, in Political Economy of the New Slavery, supra note 2, at 1.
205. Stopping Forced Labor, supra note 49, at 10.
206. There is no overall figure available, but a number of specific estimates have been made. Paul E. Lovejoy & Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897-1936, at 1 (1993). estimate that the Sokoto Caliphate in Northern Nigeria had a slave population "in excess of 1 million and perhaps more than 2.5 million.".
207. In French West Africa, Klein has calculated that there were between 3 and 3.5 million slaves, representing over 30 percent of the total population. Klein, french west africa, supra note 28, at 252-59.
208. In 1958, Greenidge estimated that around 500 000 slaves remained in the Arabian peninsula. Greenidge, Slavery, supra note 12, at 45.
209. Take, for instance, Michael Salman, The Embarrassment of Slavery: Controversies over Bondage and Nationalism in the American Colonial Philippines (2001).
210. Frederick Cooper, Conditions Analogous to Slavery: Imperialism and Free Labor Ideology in Africa, in Beyond Slavery - Explorations of Race, Labor, and Citinship in Postemancipation Societis (Frederick Cooper et al. eds., 2000);
211. Gerrit Gong, The Standard of "Civilization" in International Society (1984).
212. See Beachey, The Slave Trade of Eastern Africa, supra note 99;
213. Gordon, supra note 20;
214. Manning, supra note 27;
215. Miers, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade, supra note 97;
216. Ehud R. Toledano, The Ottoman Slave Trade and its Supression 1840-1890 (1982).
217. Ehud R. Toledano, Ottoman Concepts of Slavery in the Period of Reform, 1830s-1880s, in Breaking the Chains, supra note 26, at 47.
218. Manning, supra note 27, at 154.
219. Gordon, supra note 20, at 225-38;
220. Greenidge, supra note 12, at 42;
221. Miers, supra note 11, at 339-57.
222. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925, 32-40 (1980);
223. Klein, french west africa, supra note 28, at 66-68, 122-40, 178-79;
224. Lovejoy, supra note 27, at 252-54.
225. F.D. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa 367 (4th ed. 1929).
226. See, e.g., R.W. Beachey, The Slave Trade of Eastern Africa 204, 224 (1976);
227. Robert Conrad, The Destruction of Brazillian Slavery, 1850-1888, at 90-91 (1972);
228. King, The Latin-American Republics, supra note 97, at 388-89, 395, 405.
229. See, e.g., James Duffy, A Question of Slavery 38-39 (1967);
230. Seymour Becker, Russias's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865-1924, at 85-88, 118, 200 (1968);
231. William A. Green, British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment 1830-1865, at 129-62 (1976).
232. See, e.g., Martin A. Klein, Introduction: Modern European Expansion and Traditional Servitude in Africa and Asia, in Breaking the Chains, supra note 26, at 20;
233. Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century, supra note 11, at 30-31;
234. Howard Temperley, The Delegalization of Slavery in British India, in After Slavery, supra note 31, at 169-87.
235. Manning, supra note 27, at 161.
236. This discussion draws on Breaking the Chains, supra note 26;
237. Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28;
238. The End of Slavery in Africa, supra note 31.
239. Examples include Dennis Cordell, No Liberty, Not Much Equality and Very Little Fraternity, in Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28, at 38, 50-52;
240. Andres Eckert, Slavery in Colonial Cameroon, 1880s to 1930s, in Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule supra note 28, at 141;
241. Taj Hargey, Festina Lente: Slavery Policy and Practice in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28, at 251, 260-61;
242. Klein, French West Africa, supra note 28, at 97;
243. Suzanne Miers & Michael Crowder, The Politics of Slavery in Bechuanaland: Power Struggles and the Plight of the Basarwa in the Bamangwato Reserve, 1926-1940, in The End of Slavery in Africa, supra note 31, at 180-81.
244. Slavery - Report of the Committee of Experts on Slavery 25 Sept. 1931, Doc. No. C.618.1932.VI, Geneva, 1 Sept. 1932, at 22 (League of Nations).
245. Lovejoy & Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery, supra note 114, at 278;
246. Miers, supra note 11, at 216-32, 278-94.
247. See Jonathan Derrick, Africa's Slaves Today 34-109, 154-58 (1975);
248. Eckert, Slavery in Colonial Cameroon, in Miers & Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, supra note 28, at 133, 143-144;
249. Greenidge, Slavery, supra note 12, at 45-48;
250. Hargey, Festina Lente, supra note 128, at 266-67;
251. Don Ohadike, The Decline of Slavery among the Igbo People, in The 0End of Slavery in Africa, supra note 31, at 437, 452-57;
252. David Seddon, Unfinished Business: Slavery in Saharan Africa, in After Slavery, supra note 31.
253. These cover slaves in Algeria, Cameron, Chad, the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mauritania, Mali, Guinea, Nigeria, Niger, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Western Sahara, but other territories could potentially be added to this list. Martin Klein has estimated that around 200,000 people still accepted a form of slavery at the end of colonial rule in French West Africa. Klein, French West Africa, supra note 28, at 194.
254. Examples include M.L. Bush, Sevitude in Modern Times 200-35 (2000);
255. W. Kloosterboer, Involuntary Labor Since the Abolition of Slavery (1960);
256. Lasker, supra note 51.
257. Some of the most egregious examples of this traffic occurred in Africa, where French and Portuguese merchants purchased slaves from various parts of mainland Africa, forced them to sign labor contracts that obligated them to work for extended periods of time, and then shipped the now ostensibly "free" laborers to Caribbean colonies and various islands off the African coast. See James Duffy, A Question of Slavery 21-22, 42-43, 83, 168-210 (1967);
258. Miers, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade, supra note 97, at 28-30;
259. Lovejoy, supra note 27, at 151-52;
260. Elisée Soumonni, The Compatibility of the Slave and Palm Oil Trades in Dahomey, 1818-1858, in Slave Trade to Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth Century West Africa 86-88 (Robin Law ed., 1995).
261. Major works include David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922 (1995);
262. Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labor Overseas 1830-1920 (1974).
263. Examples include Alice L. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (1997);
264. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (1996);
265. Frederick Cooper, Conditions Analogous to Slavery, supra note 116;
266. Derrick, Africa's Slaves Today, supra note 131, at 159-202;
267. Duffy, supra note 133;
268. David Killingray, Labor Exploitation for Military Campaigns in British Colonial Africa, 24 J. Contemp. Hist. 483 (1989);
269. Raymond Leslie Buell, The Native Problem in Africa, Vol. I, 354-56, 658-59, 1043 (1928);
270. The Native Problem in Africa, Vol. II, 259-63, 321-25, 421-23 (1928);
271. Michael Mason, Working on the Railway: Forced Labor in Northern Nigeria, 1907-1912, in African Labor History 56-79 (Peter C.W. Gutkind, et al. eds., 1978);
272. Miers supra note 11, at 135-36.
273. A good example of this dynamic concerns debates over indentured labor. See Duffy, supra note 133, at 159-160;
274. Temperly, supra note 110, at 124-27, 130-33;
275. Tinker, supra note 134, at 236-39, 278.
276. A representative sample is provided by J. Orde Browne, The African Labourer 133-200 (1933).
277. Take, for example, Henry W. Nevinson, A Modern Slavery (1906).
278. Kevin Grant, A Civilised Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884-1926, at 29 (2005).
279. Id.
280. For a contemporary summary of colonial scandals in Africa, and weak government responses, see Buell, The Native Problem in Africa, Vol. I, supra note 135, at 31, 34-38, 228, 241, 248-50, 373-76, 449-50, 498-500, 568-70;
281. The Native Problem in Africa, Vol. II, supra note 135, at 16-22, 27-34, 236-38, 253-57, 321-31, 435-41, 502-07, 546-54, 567-76, 774-81, 818-36.
282. See, e.g., Edward J. Bristow, Vice and Vigilance: Purity Movements in
283. Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight Against White Slavery 1870-1939 (1982);
284. Donna J. Guy, White Slavery and Mothers Alive and Dead: The Troubled Meeting of Sex, Gender, Public Health, and Process in Latin America (2000);
285. Margit Stange, Wives, White Slaves and the Market in Women (1998);
286. Judith Walkowitz, Male Vice and Feminist Virtue: Feminism and the Politics of Prostitution in Nineteenth Century Britain, 13 History Workshop 77-94 (1982).
287. For an example of this theme, see Cynthia Hoffman & Joe Lockard, Introduction: Moral Empire and the Rhetoric of Slaveries, in Bad Subjects 69 (2004).
288. Ole Waever, Securitization and Desecuritization, in On Security 45 (Ronnie Lipschutz ed., 1995).
289. Id. at 65.
290. Slavery, Report prepared by Benjamin Whitaker, Special Repporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, updating the Report on Slavery submitted to the Sub-Commission in 1966, U.N. ESCOR, at 18, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1982/ 20/Rev.1 (1984).
291. David Roediger, Race, Labor, and Gender in the Languages of Antebellum Social Protest, in Terms Of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor 168, 168-69 (Stanley L. Engerman ed., 1999).
292. Christien van den Anker, Introduction: Combating Contemporary Slavery, in Political Economy of the New Slavery, supra note 2, at 18;
293. Bales, supra note 1, at 9. Expressed in relative, rather than absolute terms, the number of slaves in the world today may well be the smallest proportion in human history.
294. In this respect, this work can be situated within the framework put forward by Andrew Linklater, The Question of the Next Stage in International Relations Theory: A Critical Theoretical Point of View, 21 Millennium 77-98 (1992).