The reinvention of civil society: Trough the looking glass of democracy

Archives Europeennes de Sociologie

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 323-355

  Mastnak, Tomaž ^a  

^a ANTON MELIK GEOGRAPHICAL INSTITUTE   (Slovenia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL SOCIETY; DEMOCRACY; NEOLIBERALISM;

CENTRAL EUROPE; CZECHOSLOVAKIA; EASTERN EUROPE; EURASIA; EUROPE; HUNGARY; POLAND; YUGOSLAVIA (PRE-1992);

EID: 33748464334     PISSN: 00039756     EISSN: 14740583     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0003975605000111     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. The best survey of that history remains Manfred Riedel, "Gesellschaft, bürgerliche", in O. Brunner, W. Conze, and R. Koselleck, eds, Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland (Stuttgart, Ernst Klett Verlag, 1975, vol. 2).
2. Recent accounts include Robert Fine, "Civil Society Theory, Enlightenment Enlightenment and Critique", in R. Fine and Sh. Rai, eds, Civil Society: Democratic Perspectives (London, Frank Cass, 1997)
3. John Varty, "Civic or Commercial? Adam Ferguson's Concept of Civil Society", ibid.
4. Anastasia Ioannidou, "The Politics of the Division of Labour: Smith and Hegel on Civil Society", ibid.
5. Jack Lively and Andrew Reeve, "The Emergence of the Idea of Civil Society: The Artificial Political Order and Natural Social Orders", ibid.
6. John Ehrenberg, Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea (New York, New York University Press, 1999)
7. Louis D. Hunt, "Civil Society and the Idea of a Commercial Republic", in M. G. Schechter, ed., The Revival of Civil Society: Global and Comparative Perspectives (Houndmills, Macmillan, 1999).
8. On the "commercial republic", see the contributions in M. van Geldern and Q. Skinner, eds, Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002, vol. 2, part III)
9. John Dunn, "The contemporary political significance of John Locke's conception of civil society", in S. Kaviray and S. Khilnani, eds, Civil Society: History and Possibilities (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001)
10. Fania Oz-Salzberger, "Civil society in the Scottish Enlightenment", ibid.
11. Anthony Black, Guild & State: European Political Thought from the Twelfth Century to the Present (New Brunswick, N. J., Transaction Publishers, 2003).
12. Z. A. Pelczynski, "Solidarity and the 'Rebirth of Civil Society' in Poland, 1976-1981", in J. Keane, ed., Civil Society and the State: New European Perspectives (London, Verso, 1988, p. 363).
13. A broader picture, which I do not see as contradicting my argument, is given in Alberto J. Olvera Rivera, "Los modelos de la recuperación contemporánea de la idea de sociedad civil", in Alberto J. Olvera, ed., La sociedad civil: De la teoria a la realidad, (México,DF, El Colegio de México, 1999).
14. For the argument - allegedly in "considerable literature" - that "the resurgence of civil society in the east of Europe was drastically overstated", see Clive Tempest, "Myths from Eastern Europe and the Legend of the West", in Fine and Rai, Civil Society, p. 134 f.
15. The cited evidence seems very weak to me, and the argument confused. The author maintains that the state of the new democratic states of Central and Eastern Europe, where civil society rapidly withered away in the aftermath of 1989 negates "the validity of the idea that revived and vigorous civil society caused the collapse of communist power", ibid., p. 133. The author, who nevertheless accepts a presumably genuine liberal theory of civil society, misunderstands what took place both before and after 1989.
16. Timothy Garton Ash, The Uses of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central Europe (Cambridge, Granta Books, in association with Penguin Books, 1989, p. 174).
17. Timothy Garton Ash, We the People: The Revolution of 89 witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin and Prague (Cambridge, Granta Books, in association with Penguin Books, 1990, p. 147).
18. Ralf Dahrendorf, Reflections on the Revolution in Europe (London, Chatto & Windus, 1990, pp. 24, 93).
19. Among most industrious and prolific publishers were The Palach Press and Aneks publishers; among newsletters and magazines, most notable were Uncensored Poland News and East European Reporter. Interesting documents and analyses were also published in Across Frontiers, Peace and Democracy News, Osteuropa-Info, gegenstimmen... Mainstream Western publishers generally became interested in other than belles-lettres production from the East only when the fall of communism was imminent or accomplished.
20. Jacques Rupnik, "Dissent in Poland: The End of Revisionism and the Rebirth of Civil Society", in R. Tk̈és, ed., Opposition in Eastern Europe (Oxford, Macmillan/St Antony's College, 1979). Before Rupnik's essay appeared, Cornelius Castoriadis analysed the "social regime in Russia" with the help of the state-civil society distinction in the key note speech to the international conference on dissent in Eastern Europe that took place in Venice on November 15-18, 1977, as part of the Bienalle. That conceptual distinction, however, was only introduced in thesis 22 of Castoriadis's 25 theses, did not play a central role in his analysis, and did not even appear in his analysis of the new East European opposition. The withering away of the difference between the state and civil society was, in his view, rather a trait characteristic of the regime instituted in the Soviet Union (in the best tradition of the Socialisme ou barbarie).
21. See Cornelius Castoriadis, Le régime social de la Russie (Saint-Denis, Les cahiers du Vent du chemin, 1982). In the same month and place, Il Manifesto organized what appears to have been another conference about the opposition in Eastern Europe.
22. See Potere e opposizione nelle società post-rivoluzionarie: Una discussione nella sinistra ([Roma], Alfani, 1978).
23. The leading theme of the latter meeting was succinctly (and tellingly) formulated in the following way by Rossana Rossanda: "As there will be no changes in societies in the East if there is no revolution in the West, there will be no revolution in the West if we fail to critically and comprehensively appropriate the experiences of Eastern societies". The critical thrust of Rossanda's reflections was at least partly directed against the so-called formal understanding of democracy, a characteristic feature of which was the focusing on human rights.
24. Rossanda Rossanda, "Macht und Opposition in den nachrevolutionären Ländern", in Charles Bettelheim, Istvń Mészarós, Rossana Rossanda, et al., Zurückforderung der Zukunft: Macht und Opposition in den nachrevolutionären Gesellschaften (Frankfurt/M., Suhrkamp, 1979, pp. 26, 28).
25. (The original was not available to me while preparing this paper; the German translation's title may be an allusion to Fichte's Zurückforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fürsten Europens.) Such discourse was distant from the experience of contemporary East European societies. Not even the writings of David Singer, who saw the newest Polish experience, especially that of KOR, as the opposition model, was an exception. Regardless of his knowledge of the new opposition in Eastern Europe he continued to believe in the desirability of the withering away of the state.
26. See Daniel Singer, "Schwächen und Chancen des Dissenses in der UdSSR", ibid.
27. See especially Andrew Arato, "Civil Society Against the State: Poland 1980-81", Telos, 47, 1981;
28. and his books published in the 1990s, especially, of course, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1992), co-authored with Jean L. Cohen
29. John Keane, Civil Society and Democracy (London: Verso, 1988)
30. and Keane's edited volume, Civil Society and the State: New European Perspectives (London, Verso, 1988).
31. Interesting in this regard must be H. Gordon Skilling, The education of a Canadian: My life as a scholar and activist (Montreal/Ithaca, Published for Carleton University by McGill/ Queen's University Press, 2000), which I was not able to access.
32. Andrew Arato, "Revolution, Civil Society and Democracy", paper in the conference The Present and Future Role of Party/State Apparatus in Peaceful Transition from Dictatorship to Democracy, Budapest 1990.
33. John Keane, "Why is the old theme of civil society and the state enjoying a renaissance in Europe today?" (typescript, 1983, p. 2). The text was a proposal to Paul Piccone, the editor of Telos, to publish an issue of the journal on civil society. Nothing came out of it, but this is not a part of the East European story.
34. To my knowledge, Keane's paper appeared only in Slovenian translation, in T. Mastnak, ed., Socialistična civilna družba? (Ljubljana,KRT, 1985).
35. Dariusz Gawin, "Is Civil Society Possible without Bourgeois Society?" in N. Götz and J. Hackmann, ed., Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2003, p. 32).
36. For the reference, see Tempest, "Myths from Eastern Europe", p. 143, note 11.
37. Jörg Hackmann, "Civil Society against the State? Historical Experience of Eastern Europe", in Götz and Hackmann, Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region, p. 49.
38. Ehrenberg, Civil Society, pp. xv, 173, 189, 190.
39. Michnik once said that, had he time, he would have liked to read Tocqueville, whom he also mentioned a few times in his writings. Liberalism was a much bigger issue for Michnik's American correspondent than for Michnik himself. See Ira Katzneslon, Liberalism's crooked circle: Letters to Adam Michnik (Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1996).
40. In general, the Anglo-American liberal tradition was marginal compared with local traditions and with German and French intellectual influences. Michnik himself declared his indebtedness to "German culture": "Ich fühle mich als Schuldner der deutschen Kultur". "An den deutschen Leser", in Adam Michnik, Polnischer Frieden: Aufsütze zur Konzeption desWiderstands (Berlin, Rotbuch, 1985, p. 12). In that whole scene, good English speakers were relatively rare.
41. A case in point is Yugoslavia, where, for example, Locke and the Federalists were translated and written about by the Serbian intellectuals,who in the 1980s were at best marginally involved with debates on civil society and who in the times that tried man's soul worked for the Greater Serbia.
42. Arato, "Civil Society Against the State", p. 24.
43. This illusionary dialectics between ideals and reality is well expressed by the title of a book by Belgrade revisionist Svetozar Stojanović: Izmedu ideala i stvarnosti (Belgrade, Prosveta, 1969).
44. Leszek Kolakowski, Glavni tokovi marksizma (Belgrade, BIGZ, 1985, vol. 3, p. 526).
45. For Czechoslovakia, see H. Gordon Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London, George Allen and Unwin, 1981, chap. 4). That revisionism was, of course, only one of the paths out of Marxism followed in the period.
46. See Milan Šimečka, The Restoration of Order: The Normalization of Czechoslovakia (London,Verso, 1984).
47. Ivan Sviták, Dialektika moci (Köln, Index, 1973, p. 49).
48. See George Schöpflin, "Opposition and Para-Opposition: Critical Currents in Hungary, 1968-78", in T-dsokés, ed., Opposition in Eastern Europe
49. see Gy-dsorgy Dalos, Archipel Gulasch: Die Entstehung der demokratischen Opposition in Ungarn (Bremen, Donat & Temmen, 1986, p. 20.).
50. See also Kolakowski's biting remarks on the orthodox character of Hungarian revisionism, in Glavni tokovi marksizma, vol. 3, p. 524 ff.
51. See Marc Rakovski, Towards an East European Marxism (London, Allison and Busby, 1978).
52. This was a slightly misleading title. The title in the original translates as Soviet Type Societies from a Marxist Point of View. (I would like to thank Steven Lukes and János Kis for the information.) The French translation appeared under a more accurate title: Le marxisme face aux pays de l'Est (Paris, Savelli, 1977).
53. "Nowy ewolucjonizm", in Adam Michnik, Szanse polskiej demokracji (London, Aneks, 1984, p. 86).
54. Kołakowski, Glavni tokovi marksizma, vol. 3, p. 527
55. See H. Gordon Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe (Oxford, Houndmills/London, Macmillan in association with St Antony's College, 1989, p. 157).
56. See note 34.
57. Zdenek Mlynář., Stát a človek (Prague, Svobodn-ace slovo, 1964),
58. discussed in Vladimir Kusin, The Intellectual Origins of the Prague Spring: The Development of Reformist Ideas in Czechoslovakia, 1956-1967 (Cambridge, At the University Press, 1971, p. 108).
59. For a history of Marxism written from that perspective, see Predrag Vranicki, Historija marksizma (Zagreb, Naprijed, 1975).
60. Geographically most comprehensive (or inclusive) surveys are Tökés, Opposition in Eastern Europe
61. Jane Leftwich Curry, ed., Dissent in Eastern Europe (New York, Praeger, 1983)
62. C. Fitzpatrick, ed., From Below: Independent Peace and Environmental Movements in Eastern Europe and the USSR (New York andWashington, The US Helsinki Watch Committee, 1987)
63. Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society
64. Vladimir Tismaneanu, ed., In Search of Civil Society: Independent Peace Movements in the Soviet Bloc (New York, Routledge, 1990)
65. Michael H. Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland: Workers, Intellectuals, and Oppositional Politics, 1976-1980 (New York, Columbia University Press, 1993, chap. 1)
66. Padraic Kenney, A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989 (Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2002)
67. see also Thierry Wolton, ed., Underground im Ostblock: Rock-Scene, Tramps und Gangs, Schwarzmarkt, Schiebung und Korruption,Witze (Berlin, Merve Verlag, 1978).
68. For Czechoslovakia, see Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights
69. Jiřǐ Pehe, ed., The Prague Spring: A Mixed Legacy (New York, Freedom House, 1988)
70. H. Gordon Skilling and Paul Wilson, eds, Civic Freedom in Central Europe: Voices from Czechoslovakia (Houndmills, Macmillan, 1991)
71. Sona Szomolányiov-ac, "The Repolitization of the Slovak Society" (Bratislava, typescript, 1990).
72. For Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London, London School of Economics and Political Sciences, 1981)
73. Reinhard Fenchel and Anna-Jutta Pietsch, eds, Polen 1980-82: Gesellschaft gegen den Staat (Hannover, SOAK-Verlag, 1982)
74. Andrzej Tymowski, "The Underground Debate on Strategy and Tactics", Poland Watch, 1 (1), 1982
75. Reinventing Civil Society: Poland's Quiet Revolution, 1981-1986 (New York and Washington, The US Helsinki Watch Committee, 1986)
76. Roman Dumas, "Poland's 'Independent Society"'; ibid.,
77. "Poland's Peace Movement: 'Freedom and Peace"', both in Poland's Watch, 5 (8), 1986
78. Pelczynski, "Solidarity and the 'Rebirth of Civil Society' in Poland"; Documents of Wolność i Pokoj: Poland's "Freedom and Peace" Movement (Seattle, A World Without War Council Publication, 1989)
79. David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics: Opposition and Reform in Poland since 1968 (Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1990)
80. Piotr Ogrodzinski, "Four Models of Civil Society and the Transformation in Poland" (Warszawa, typescript, 1991)
81. Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland
82. Gawin, "Is Civil Society Possible", p. 30 ff.
83. Poland and Hungary: Michael D. Kennedy, The Intelligentsia in the Constitution of Civil Societies and Post Communist Regimes in Hungary and Poland, CSST Working Paper.. (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan, 1990).
84. Informative for Hungary is Dalos, Archipel Gulasch
85. see also Josef Gorlice, "Introduction to the Hungarian Democratic Opposition", Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 31, 1986
86. Hans-Henning Paetzke, Andersdenkende in Ungarn (Frankfurt/M, Suhrkamp, 1986)
87. Elemér Hankiss, "The 'Second Society': Is There an Alternative Social Model Emerging in Contemporary Hungary?" Social Research 55 (1-2), 1988.
88. For the Soviet Union: C. Fitzpatrick and L. Alexeyeva, eds, Neformaly: Civil Society in the USSR (New York and Washington, The US Helsinki Watch Committee, 1990)
89. Richard Sakwa, "Civil Society and Commune Democracy during Perestroika", Paper at IV World Congress of Slavic Studies, Harrogate 1990
90. T. H. Rigby, "The USSR", Project The Development of Civil Society in Communist Systems (The Australian National University, typescript, 1990. I do not know what happened with the project).
91. For the Baltic States in particular: Norbert Götz and Jörg Hackmann, "Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region: Towards a Hybrid Theory", in Götz and Hackmann, Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region. It is interesting to note that Polish documents, especially those related to the workers' struggle, were translated into Russian.
92. See, for example, Vladimir Malyshev, ed., Rabochie volnenija v Pol'shche: Sbornik materialov o dekabr'skih sobytijah 1970 g. (Overseas Publications Interchange, 1973)
93. Jan Kavan and Jan Daniel, eds, Socialisticheskaja oppozicija v Chehoslovakii 1973-1975 (London, Overseas Publications Interchange, 1976)
94. Vladimir Malyshev, ed., Rabochie volnenija v Pol'shche prodolzhajutsja: Materialy o sobytijah 25-go ijunja 1976 g. Komitet zashchchity rabochih (London, Overseas Publications Interchange, 1977)
95. Tadeusz Podgurski, Pol'skij rabochij klass v bor'be za demokratiju i social'nuju spravedlivost' (Munich, Przemiany [Premeny], 1978)
96. Andrzej Pomorski and Mikhail Nazarov, Solidarnost': O rabochem dvizhenii v Pol'shche i o rabochemdvizhenii v Rossii (Frankfurt/M, Posev, 1980).
97. For Bulgaria: Roumen Dimitrov, "Formation of the Bulgarian Opposition 1989-1991", Bulgarian Quarterly, 1 (1), 1991.
98. GDR: Karl Wilhelm Fricke, Opposition und Widerstand in der DDR: Ein politischer Report (Köln, Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1984).
99. On Yugoslavia: Pavle Gantar and Tomaž Mastnak, "Civilna družba na Slovenskem: Prva petletka", Problemi, 26 (10), 1988
100. Tomaž Mastnak, "Civil Society in Slovenia: From Opposition to Power", Studies in Comparative Communism, 23 (3-4), 1990
101. J. Simmie and J. Dekleva, eds, Yugoslavia in Turmoil: After Self-Management (London, Pinter Publishers, 1991).
102. See also the following anthologies of documents: L. Kreft and T. Mastnak, eds, Poljska (Ljubljana, Časopis za kritiko znanosti, Mladina, Radio Študent, and Tribuna, 1982)
103. Mastnak, ed., Socialistična civilna družba
104. V. Lay, ed., Društveni pokreti i politički sistem u Poljskoj (Belgrade, Institut društvenih nauka, 1985)
105. B. Rajčič., ed., Poljsko pitanje: Članci, eseji, polemike (Belgrade, SIC, 1985).
106. Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society, p. 268, no 7.
107. Arato's most important contributions to the debate by then were Arato, "Civil Society Against the State"; "Empire vs. Civil Society: Poland 1981-1982", Telos, 50, 1981-1982. I should add tha in the 1980s, Pelikán was involved in trans-European civil society networks, in particular in the independent peace movement.
108. Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society, pp. 157-58. At least in some languages in play here, the word for "second" also means the "other".
109. Arato, "Civil Society Against the State".
110. Milan Šime-cacka, "Revolution nach siebzig Jahren? Und was wird aus uns?" in. F. Herterich and Ch. Semler, eds, Dazwischen: Ostmitteleuropäische Reflexionen (Frankfurt/M, Suhrkamp, 1989, p. 172). A different but related question is that of the role of intellectuals in the creation of civil society. The issue has been most intensely debated with regard to Poland.
111. See, for example, Jane Leftwich Curry, "Polish Dissent and Establishment Criticism: The New Evolutionism", in Curry, Dissent in Eastern Europe, who has argued that intellectuals, at least after August 1980, "seemed merely to be reacting" to the changes "and not leading".
112. In Michael Kennedy, The Intelligentsia in the Constitution of Civil Societies, intelligentsia appears as the most prominent actor, with the authority based in its role as the speaker of new universalism, of civil society.
113. See idem, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland: A Critical Sociology of Soviet-Type Society (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
114. The view that Solidarity was created by "political intellectuals" has refuted in Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barrier: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991),
115. and Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity: A Political Sociology of Poland's Working-Class Democratization (Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1991), especially chap. 1, 9.
116. Against the "elitist thesis", these two authors stressed the workers' collective learning process based on the historical experience and autonomous workers' action. T. G. Ash, "Poland After Solidarity", The New York Review of Books, June 31, 1991, has called these two books the revisionist historiography of Solidarity. In his opinion, Laba's work is original and well-made whereas Goodwyn appears as a charlatan.
117. See Antonin J. Liehm, "It Was You Who Did It!", in Pehe, ed., The Prague Spring: A Mixed Legacy, pp. 172-73. In this context, Liehm pointed out that while Dubček relied on civil society, Gorbačev did not and could not.
118. On Czechoslovakia as a chosen civil society nation, see Vladimir V. Kusin, The Intellectual Origins of the Prague Spring, p. 1.
119. Kusin, The Intellectual Origins of the Prague Spring, 35. The Czech term občansky - like the German bürgerlich - can be translated into English as both civic and civil.
120. See H. Gordon Skilling, ed., "Parallel Polis, or An Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe: An Inquiry", Social Research, 55 (1-2), 1988, p. 177.
121. A round table discussion organized in the Spring of 1968 had the title "Občanskǎ spolčenost nebo boj polityckich stran?" See Kulturni tvorba, May 16, 1968
122. Kusin, The Intellectual Origins of the Prague Spring, pp. 110-15.
123. See Ciril Baškovič., ČSSR (Ljubljana, KRT, 1982, p. 55 ff.)
124. H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1976, pp. 145 ff., 356 ff.).
125. See Kusin, The Intellectual Origins of the Prague Spring, pp. 116-118
126. Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution, pp. 149 ff., 359.
127. The Charter 77 Declaration, published on January 1, 1977, for example, spoke of "civilized life" and "civil rights", but not of "civil society". The English translation is published as an appendix in Václav Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central-Eastern Europe, ed. J. Keane (London, Hutchinson, 1985).
128. See Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society, and Benda's own reminiscences in Skilling, eds, "Parallel Polis".
129. See Václav Benda, "The Parallel 'Polis"', in H. G. Skilling and P. Wilson, eds, Civic Freedom in Central Europe: Voices from Czechoslovakia (Houndmills, Macmillan, 1991)
130. Václav Havel, "The Power of the Powerless", in Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless.
131. I say "clear use of the term" because it is not always clear to me what "civil society" stands for. Such a case is Kusy's "civil (etatist) society". See Miroslav Kusy, "Chartism and 'real socialism"', in Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless, p. 155
132. Ladislav Hejdánek, "Prospects for Democracy and Socialism in Eastern Europe", in Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless, p. 149.
133. On Hejdánek's earlier articulations of that idea, see Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia, pp. 71, 74, 82. Among the first to use the concept of civil society in Czechoslovakia was Jan Tesa-car., who understood totalitarianism as the tendency to establish control over all spheres and aspects of social life, which had led to the elimination of the complex structure of civil society. If there was a chance to overcome totalitarianism, it lay in the encouragement of the creation of civil society.
134. See Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia, pp. 72-73, 184
135. ibid., Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe, p. 160.
136. The volume was printed as O svobodě a moci (Köln, Index, 1980),
137. and a selection of essays appeared in the English translation as Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless.
138. Cited in Steven Lukes, Introduction to Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless, p. 12
139. reprinted in Steven Lukes, Moral Conflict and Politics (Oxford, Clarendnon, 1991, p. 257 ff).
140. See Arato, "Civil Society Against the State'
141. Jan Zielonka, Political Ideas in Contemporary Poland (Aldershot, Avebury, 1989, chap. 1)
142. Gawin, "Is Civil Society Possible", 30.
143. Lityński's contribution is highlighted in Neal Ascherson, The Polish August: The Self-Limiting Revolution (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1982, p. 138).
144. "Minał rok", in Michnik, Szanse polskiej demokracji, p. 69.
145. Iván Szelényi, "Preface" to George Konrád and Ivan Szelńyi, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power, trans. A. Arato and R. E. Allen (Brighton, Harvester Press, 1979, p. xvi).
146. Iván Szelényi, "Socialist Opposition in Eastern Europe: Dilemmas and Prospects", in Tökés, ed., Opposition in Eastern Europe. pp. 204-205.
147. György Konrád, "Zur Programmatik der frühen Samizdatbewegung", in Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, pp. 109-110.
148. See Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 49,
149. and a discussion published in Neues Forum, January-February 1980, pp. 38 ff.,
150. reprinted in Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 130.
151. Cited in Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 34.
152. Mihaly Vajda, The State and Socialism (London, Allison and Busby, 1981, p. 5).
153. In particular, Vajda was critical of the "efforts of Marxist socialism to abolish the separation of society and state", and of the Marxist-socialist reductionist notion of civil society, that characterized "the whole of civil society as capitalism" (ibid., pp. 7-8).
154. See Vajda, The State and Socialism, p. 107 ff.
155. and Gorlice's interview with Vajda, conducted in 1984, in Gorlice, "Introduction to the Hungarian Democratic Opposition", pp. 144-145, 154-155.
156. See Arato, "Civil Society Against the State", on differences between Hegedüs versus Kis and Bence. The latter, in Arato's view, had adopted the KOR's position. That was also the opinion of Dalos: "The basic idea" of the Polish opposition - that "a civil society, organized as a movement, should gradually force the system to reform" - was also Kis and Bence's leading idea.
157. Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 50.
158. Interview with Miklös Haraszti, conducted by Josef Gorlice, in Across Frontiers, Winter-Spring 1985.
159. Interview with Mihajlo Marković, Teleks, March 11, 1988.
160. For a more detailed discussion, see Tomaž Mastnak, "From the New Social Movements to Political Parties", in Simmie and Dekleva, eds, Yugoslavia in Turmoil
161. Mastnak, Vzhodno od raja: Civilna družba pod komunizmom in po njem (Ljubljana: DZS, 1992, chap. 2).
162. See Tomaž Mastnak, "Za anarholiberalizem", Problemi, 1983.
163. See, for example, Kreft and Mastnak, eds, Poljska
164. Mastnak, ed., Socialistična civilna družba?
165. On this issue, see especially Jacques Rupnik, "Le totalitarisme vu de l'Est", in G. Hermet, P. Hassner, and J. Rupnik, eds, Totalitarismes (Paris, Economica, 1984)
166. an abridged English translation of this highly informative essay is "Totalitarianism Revisited", in Keane, Civil Society and the State.
167. Leszek Kołakowski, "Tezy o nadziei i beznadziejnośći"
168. I cite the English translation, "Hope and Hopelessness", Survey: A Journal of East & West Studies, 17 (3), 1971, p. 41.
169. On the Theses, see Arato, "Civil Society Against the State", 28
170. Zielonka, Political Ideas, p. 13 f.
171. Jacek Kuroń, for example, repeated Kołakowski's analysis almost verbatim in his "Polityczna opozycja w Polsce", in Kuroń, Polityka i odpowiedzialność (London, Aneks, 1984, p. 109 ff).
172. Kołakowski, "Hope and Hopelessness", p. 42.
173. On revolution as a "beautiful illness", see "Rewolucja jako piekna choroba", and on the revolutionary mentality, "O duchu rewolucyjnym", both in Leszek Kołakowski, Czy diabeł mȯ ze być zbawiony i 27 innych kazan (London, Aneks, 1984).
174. For Kołakowski, it was "a perspective of social and national liberation". See "Hope and Hopelessness", p. 52.
175. See Adam Michnik, "Nowy ewolucjonizm".
176. On KOR se especially Jan Józef Lipski, KOR-Komitet Obrony Robotników/Komitet Samoobrony Społecznej (London, Aneks, 1983)
177. Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer": Analysen, Dokumente, Artikel und Interviews 1976-1981, ed. W. Mackenbach (Hamburg, Junius, 1982).
178. This is Havel's explanation, in Václav Havel, "The Power of the Powerless", p. 46.
179. See Tomaz. Mastnak, "From the New Social Movements to Political Parties", pp. 45-47
180. and N. Malečkar and T. Mastnak, eds, Punk pod Slovenci (Ljubljana, KRT, 1985).
181. Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 38. The letter was signed by 34 signatories. Two and a half years later, 127 individuals signed a letter of protest against the persecution of Charter 77's activists.
182. The letter is reprinted in Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, pp. 137-138.
183. KOR, "Apel do spoleczeństwa i władz PRL", September 23, 1976, in Lipski,KOR, p. 393.
184. KOR, "Oświadczenie", September 29, 1977, in Lipski,KOR, p. 395.
185. Václav Havel, "The Power of the Powerless", pp. 46-47.
186. György Bence, Jńos Kenedi, and János Kis, Open letter to the Signatories of Charter 77, October 26, 1979, in Dalos, Archipel Gulasch, p. 138.
187. See Adam Michnik, "W dziesiata rocznice interwencji", in Michnik, Szanse polskiej demokracji, p. 40.
188. See Jacek Kuroń, "Polityczna opozycja w Polsce", p. 144.
189. Interview for Les temps modernes, cited in Andrzej Drawicz, "Poljska demokratična opozicija - sedanjost in perspektive", Poljska, p. 140.
190. Adam Michnik, "W dziesiata rocznice interwencji", p. 40.
191. Jacek Kuroń, "Mysli o programie działania", in Kuroń, Polityka i odpowiedzialność.
192. The importance of 1968 for Michnik's conceptualization of the new Polish opposition has recently been recalled by Christoph Kleßmann, "Das Jahr 1968 in westlicher und östlicher Perspektive", in B. Faulenbach and R. Eckert, eds, Auf dem Weg zur Zivilgesellschaft? Mythos und Realität der 60er und 70er Jahre in Ost und West (Essen, Klartext Verlag, 2003, p. 21). But the author here, unlike Michnik, speaks of 1968 as a "Vorstufe" for the founding of KOR. He spoke in a SPD conference.
193. Michnik, "W dziesia.ta rocznice interwencji", p. 41.
194. "Was wir wollen und was wir können", in Adam Michnik, Polnischer Frieden, p. 19.
195. "Mina.l rok", p. 73;
196. "Uwagi o opozycji i sytuacji kraju", in Michnik, Szanse polskiej demokracji, p. 89.
197. See note 68.
198. Adam Michnik, "Gray is Beautiful - Thoughts on Democracy in Central Europe", in 30. mednarodno srečanje pisateljev/30th International Writers Meeting/30e rencontre internationale d'ćrivains, Bled, May 21-25, 1997 (Ljubljana, 1997).
199. György Konrád, Antipolitik: Mitteleuropáische Meditationen (Frankfurt/M, Suhrkamp, 1985, pp. 89, 213).
200. Interview with V-acaclav Havel, conducted by Erica Blair [John Keane], The Times Literary Supplement, January 23, 1987
201. Václav Havel, "Politics and Conscience", in J. Vladislav, ed., Living in Truth (London, Faber and Faber, 1989, p. 155).
202. An exception was Slovenia in the second half of the 1980s. See S. Dravinec, ed., Boj za oblast (Maribor, Katedra, 1989).
203. Havel, "The Power of the Powerless", p. 68.
204. See note 82.
205. Already in the early days of Solidarity, one of its leaders, Bogdan Boruszewicz, jokingly remarked that "people expect the new trade unions to be everything: They should carry out the tasks of trade unions, they should participate in the governing of the country, they should be a political party and militia, they should chase drunkards and pickpockets, teach morals". Interview with Lech Wa-lsesa, Bogdan Borusewicz and others", Czas, November 21, 1980, translated in Mackenbach, Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer", p. 179.
206. A Debate between J. Lityński, J. Kuroń, B. Geremek, J. Milewski, Z. Bujak and R. Bugaj, organized by Robotnik, August 1, 1981, translated in Mackenbach, Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer., p. 213.
207. Jacek Kuroń, Speech in Gdansk on July 25, 1981, extracts translated in Mackenbach, Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer", pp. 207-208, 209-210.
208. Interview with Jacek Kuroń, 10 October 1980, L'Altrernative, November-December 7, 1980
209. Jacek Kuroń, "The Threat from Without", Labour Focus on Eastern Europe, Winter-Spring, 4-6, 1981
210. ibid., "Co dalej?", in Kuroń, Polityka i odpowiedzialnóacc.
211. See Kuroń, Speech in Gdansk on July 25, 1981.
212. See notes 44 and 45
213. Havel, "The Power of the Powerless", p. 79
214. ibid., Living in Truth, pp. 149-50.
215. See Carl Schmitt, "Staatsethik und pluralistischer Staat", in Schmitt, Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar - Genf - Versailles, 1923-1939 (Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, 1994, 3rd ed., p. 152). There are disturbing similarities between Schmitt's critique of the total state and Havel's critique of totalitarianism and a shared ground in the critique of modern technological civilization.
216. Havel, Living in Truth, pp. 149-50
217. ibid., "Power of the Powerless", pp. 94, 95.
218. Petr Pithart characterized the dissident "parallel polis" as the "ghetto of proud exclusivity". See Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia, pp. 74, 78.
219. See Kuroń, Speech in Gdansk on July 25, 1981.
220. To my knowledge, the sole - but only partial - exception was the debate in Slovenia. See. e.g., Tomaž Mastnak, "Alternativa je kurba ali: Freiheit ist immer Freiheit der Andersdenkenden", in Punk pod Slovenci
221. ibid., "Totalitarizem od spodaj", Družboslovne razprave, 5, 1987.
222. Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia, p. 52.
223. For a less discussed aspect of civil social opposition, see Tomaž Mastnak, "Homofobični demokrati", Teleks, 13, 1990.